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HEALTH 
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LIBRAi^Y 


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OCCUPATION  THER/ 

A  MANUAL  FOR  NURSES 


BY 
WILLIAM  RUSH  DUNTON,  Jr.,  B.  S.,  M.  A.,  M.  D. 

Assistant    Physician    at    Sheppard   and     Enoch    Pratt    Hospitals, 
Towson,  Md.;   Instructor  in  Psychiatry,  Johns  Hopkins  University 


"Occupation  is  the  very  life 
of  life."— Harold  Bell  Wright 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.    B.     SAUNDERS    COMPANY 

1915 


IC' 


Copyright,  1915,  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Company 


PHINTED    IN    AMERICA 

PRESS    OF 

W.    B.    SAUNDERS    COMPANY 

PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 

This  little  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  series  of  talks 
which  were  given  to  the  nurses  at  the  Sheppard  and 
Enoch  Pratt  Hospital.  The  manner  of  its  arrangement 
is  based  on  the  course  in  occupation  as  it  is  there  given. 
Yet  I  have  constantly  had  in  mind  the  nurse  in  charge 
of  a  private  case  who  is  responsible  for  the  occupation 
of  her  patient  without  having  an  occupation  teacher  or 
director  who  can  advise  her  as  to  the  best  method.  I 
have  tried  to  emphasize  the  basic  principles  of  occu- 
pational therapy  and  have  given  chiefly  those  forms 
of  work  which  may  be  useful  to  the  private  nurse. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  directions  for  all  occupations 
and  crafts  without  expanding  the  book  to  an  abnormal 
size,  and  it  is  merely  desired  to  point  the  way  to  the 
nurse  whose  inclinations  and  those  of  her  patient  lead 
to  a  development  of  special  forms.  ^Rumerous  refer- 
ences are  given  to  books  and  articles  on  special  subjects. 

A  chapter  on  the  ISTurse  in  the  Hospital  has  been 
added  and  points  out  the  chief  differences  between  the 
occupation  of  a  patient  in  the  hospital  and  one  under 
special  care.  It  is  believed  that  if  the  nurse  has  some 
knowledge  of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  work  in 
hand  that  it  may  be  made  more  interesting  to  the  pa- 
tient. In  pursuance  of  this  belief  certain  interesting 
data  has  been  made  a  part  of  the  following  chapters. 

7 


PREFACE 


The  nurse  should,  however,  realize  that  much  more  of 
interest  may  be  learned  from  other  sources.  She  is 
urged  to  provide  herself  with  an  armentarium  which 
should  consist  at  least  of  the  following: 

Playing  cards. 

Dominoes  or  card  dominoes, 

Cribbage  board. 

Scrap  book  with  puzzles  and  catches, 

One  or  more  picture  puzzles, 
and  may  well  include  also 

A  bed  table    (see  p.    124  for   directions  in 
making). 

Studies  in  Invalid  Occupation  by  Susan  E. 
Tracy.    Boston,  1910,  Whitcomb  &  Bar- 
rows. 
She  is  also  urged  to  cultivate  a  particular  craft  in  order 
that  she  may  herself  have  a  hobby  and  also  that  she 
may  have  special  ability  in  instructing  her  patient. 

W.  E.   DUJSTTOIT,   Je. 
T0WS02T,  Maeyland, 
August,  1915. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Historical    11 

Hobbies  and  Their  Value 21 

Psychology  of  Occupation   24 

Mechanism  of  Recovery  by  Occupation   27 

The  Nurse  in  the  Hospital  34 

Puzzles,  Catches,  Etc 38 

Reading    42 

Physical  Exercises    51 

Card  Games 55 

String    Work ■ 59 

Weaving    101 

Paper  Work 110 

Wood  Work   119 

Picture  Puzzles    128 

Basketry 131 

Chair  Caning   154 

Bookbinding    156 

Collecting 166 

Gardening    174 

Nature  Study   178 

Stenciling  and  Block  Printing 179 

Plastic  Work   185 

Drawing  and  Painting   192 

Metal  Work    200 

Pyrography    210 

Needlework    211 

Photography    222 

Music    225 

Conclusion   226 

Bibliography    229 

Index    •  • 237 


Occupation  Therapy 


HISTORICAL. 


While  considerable  has  been  written  upon  the  history 
of  occupation  as  a  therapeutic  measure  in  the  care  of 
mental  cases,  it  is  impossible  to  give  credit  to  any  phy- 
sician as  having  been  tbe  first  to  apply  it,  or  to  name 
the  form  of  occupation  so  used.  Probably  its  beginning 
was  so  gradual,  and  yet  so  general,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  give  any  one  person  credit  as  discoverer,  or  dignify 
any  form  of  occupation  as  having  been  first  used  to 
restore  a  mind  diseased.  Possibly  the  credit  belongs 
to  a  number  of  patients,  each  one  of  wliom  found  a 
tranquillizing  influence  in  work  casually  undertaken 
and  so  continued  it  in  the  form  originally  begun,  or  in 
other  ways.  The  physician,  if  he  was  intelligent,  noted 
the  cause  of  the  improvement  which  ensued  and  ap- 
plied the  remedy  to  other  cases.  Probably  most  psychi- 
atrists past  middle  age  have  had  such  experience.  Oc- 
casionally we  have  had  the  big  men  of  psychiatry  writ- 
ing of  their  experiences  and  of  the  value  of  occupation 
or  work  as  a  therapeutic  measure.     iSTotable  instances 

11 


12  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

are  Isaac  Ray^  and  Lauder  Lindsay,^  but  too  often 
such  opinions  liave  been  buried  or  dismissed  with  few 
words  in  annual  reports  where  they  are  inaccessible 
after  a  few  years. 

This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  one  of  the  papers  by 
Dr.  Eay  originally  appeared  in  his  report  to  the  Cor- 
poration of  Butler  Hospital  for  1865,  and  was  re- 
printed in  the  Journal  of  Insanity.  That  other  men 
in  other  hospitals  were  alive  to  the  importance  of  occu- 
pation is  shown  by  the  following  note  for  which  I  am 
indebted  to  Miss  Edith  Kathleen  Jones,  Librarian  at 
McLean  Hospital :  The  importance  of  various  forms  of 
diversion,  and  especially  of  manual  occupation,  has  been 
recognized  from  its  (McLean  Hospital)  very  beginning. 

In  his  report  for  1822  Dr.  Wyman  writes,  "the 
amusements  provided  in  the  establishment  for  lunatics, 
as  draughts,  chess,  backgammon,  nine-pins,  swinging, 
sawing  wood,  gardening,  reading,  writing,  music,  etc., 
divert  the  attention  from  unpleasant  subjects  of  thought 
and  afford  exercise  both  of  body  and  mind  (and)  have 
a  powerful  effect  in  tranquillizing  the  mind,  breaking 
up  wrong  associations  of  ideas  and  inducing  correct 
habits  of  thinking  as  well  as  acting." 

Another  Superintendent,  Dr.  Bell,  in  1839,  says  that 

iRay,  I.  Labor  in  Principal  Hospitals  for  Insane  in  Great 
Britain,  France  and  Germany.  Am.  Jour.  Ins.,  1846,  II,  p.  359. 
Ray,  I.  The  Labor  Question  and  Hospitals  for  Incurables. 
American  Journal  of  Insanity,  1866,  XXII,  p.  439. 

2  Lindsay,  W.  Lauder.  Reprint  from  the  Report  of  James 
Murray's  Royal  Asylum,  Perth,  Scotland,  for  1860-1.  Md. 
Psychiatric  Quarterly,  III,  No.  1,  July,  1913,  p.  10. 


HISTORIC  Ali  -^^ 


"the  experiment  of  meclianical  labour  was  here  first 
introduced,  and  the  safety,  expediency  and  immense 
utility  of  putting  tools  into  the  hands  of  the  patients 
entirely  and  satisfactorily  decided."  And  again,  speak- 
ing of  occupation  as  a  means  of  cure,  "there  is  probably 
no  other  institution  in  the  world  where  the  value  of  this 
has  been  more  fully  tested  than  here."  Although  later, 
owing  to  the  class  of  patients  received  at  McLean,  me- 
chanical and  agricultural  labor  was  abandoned  for 
"some  form  of  busy  idleness,"  yet  each  superintendent 
has  done  his  share  in  developing  this  method  of  treat- 
ment. For  the  men,  since  1834  there  has  been  a  car- 
penter's shop  in  which  woodcarving  and  cabinet  mak- 
ing have  been  taught ;  while  the  women  have  had  lessons 
in  drawing  and  painting  and  have  done  various  forms 
of  fancy-work. 

In  1836,  according  to  the  report  for  that  year,  50 
patients  worked  in  the  carpenter's  shop  6  hours  a  day 
and  made  TSSG  candle  boxes  which  were  sold  for 
$90T  06  Later  the  boxes  were  not  sold,  though  they 
continued  to  be  made.  In  1836,  "100  cords  of  wood 
were  carted  by  patients  from  wharf  to  house,  and  200 
cords  were  sawed,  split  and  piled." 

In  1910  two  rooms  in  the  women's  gymnasium  were 
prepared  for  industrial  occupation  of  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent type;  a  teacher  of  handicrafts  was  engaged,  and 
instruction  is  now  given  daily  in  baskety,  leather-work, 
lace-making  and  weaving. 

There  are  now  twelve  hand  looms.  In  1913-14  an 
addition  was  built  on  to  the  women's  gymnasium,  pro- 


14:  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

Tiding  space  for  these  looms.  It  is  well  lighted  by  win- 
dows and  skylight.  Under  it  is  the  room  used  for  pot- 
tery making,  and  a  kiln  has  been  set  up  in  a  disused 
kitchen.  An  appropriation  has  just  been  made  for  a 
similiar  enlargement  of  the  men's  gymnasium,  in  order 
to  provide  additional  occupations  for  them.  The  women 
are  now  taught  weaving,  basketry  (reed  azid  raffia), 
leather-work  (tooling,  coloring,  making),  pottery, 
modelling,  casting,  knitting,  "rake"  knitting,  crochet- 
ing, embroidery,  lace-making  (pillow  and  crochet),  sew- 
ing, bead  work,  tatting,  stencilling,  sawing  picture  puz- 
zles, painting  (portrait,  still  life,  coloring  pictures,  col- 
oring cards  for  holidays) . 

In  the  very  interesting  Descriptive  Account  of  the 
Friends'  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  1813-1913,  Dr.  Eobert 
H.  Chase  says,  "ISTo  feature  in  the  treatment  of  the  in- 
sane is  more  highly  valued  than  occupation,  systemat- 
ically applied  and  judiciously  carried  out.  Work  is  a 
law  of  our  nature  which  demands  expression  in  the  in- 
sane no  less  than  in  the  sane.  To  understand  this  one 
has  only  to  reflect  upon  the  depressing  effect  of  inaction, 
then  turn  to  the  satisfaction  and  strength  that  result 
from  the  agreeable  use  of  one's  mental  and  physical 
powers.  It  may  be  seen  that  from  the  beginning 
Friends'  Asylum  made  intelligent  and  continuous  effort 
to  give  the  patients  the  benefit  that  comes  from  emplo}'- 
ment  and  rational  diversion."  In  the  Chronology  which 
is  in  the  same  volume  are  found  many  events  bearing 
upon  the  occupation  and  diversion  of  patients,  all  show- 
ing that  the  hospital  authorities  were  imbued  with  the 


HISTORICAL,  15 

idea  that  occupation  was  a  valuable  form  of  treatment. 

Fortunately  the  value  of  work,  occupation,  diver- 
sional  occupation,  or  whatever  name  may  be  applied  to 
it,  in  helping  the  sick  mind  to  recovery  has  been  bet- 
ter recognized  in  recent  years,  and  with  this  recognition 
has  come  a  desire  for  a  better  understanding  of  how  oc- 
cupation aids  and  the  best  ways  in  which  it  may  be 
used.  This  is  easily  proved  by  a  reference  to  the  bibli- 
ography on  page  229. 

With  increased  use  of  occupation  it  soon  became  ap-^ 
parent  that  there  must  be  persons  specially  trained  to 
carry  out  this  treatment  if  it  is  to  be  successful.  Credit 
for  first  giving  systematic  training  in  occupation  must 
be  given  to  Miss  Susan  E.  Tracy  who  gave  the  first 
course  in  Invalid  Occupation  at  the  Adams  ISTervine 
near  Boston  in  1906.  Soon  after,  or  in  1910,  she  pub- 
lished her  book  entitled  Studies  in  Invalid  Occupation, 
which  has  given  a  great  impetus  to  occupational  therapy. 
Miss  Tracy's  book  was,  however,  largely  written  for  the 
teacher  of  occupation  courses,  and  that  part  which  ap- 
plied especially  to  the  mentally  sick  was  written  by  Dr. 
E.  Stanley  Abbott  of  the  McLean  Hospital.  The  intro- 
duction, however,  by  Dr.  Daniel  H.  Fuller,  then  Super- 
intendent of  the  Adams  l^ervine,  is  an  admirable  expo- 
sition of  how  nervous  and  mental  cases  may  be  benefited 
by  occupation. 

In  1908  a  training  course  in  occupation  for  hospital 
attendants  was  organized  at  the  Chicago  School  of 
Civics  and  Philanthropy.  Miss  Julia  Lathrop  and 
Kabbi  Hirsch  had  been  members  of  the  State  Board  of 


16  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

Control  and  had  been  shocked  by  the  idleness  on  the 
wards  of  the  state  hospitals.  Feeling  that  public  in- 
terest should  be  aroused  in  state  institutions  and  that 
such  idleness  should  not  exist,  Miss  Lathrop  and  Eabbi 
Hirsch  resigned  from  the  Board  of  Control  and  organ- 
ized the  course.  It  was  a  most  excellent  one  and  in- 
cluded inexpensive  raffia  work  with  instruction  in  old- 
fashioned  yeast  dyeing  by  Prof.  Wartz;  book-binding 
and  pasting  work;  illuminating;  stencilling,  knotting 
and  weaving ;  gymnastics  and  playground  work,  etc. 

The  work  of  Miss  Tracy  so  impressed  Miss  Sarah  E. 
Parsons,  Superintendent  of  IsTurses  at  the  Massachusetts 
General  Hospital,  that  in  the  Spring  of  1911  a  course 
in  occupation  was  given  at  the  Training  School  of  that 
hospital  under  Miss  Tracy's  direction. 

Probably  the  first  nurses'  occupation  course  in  a  hos- 
pital for  mental  diseases  was  that  given  at  the  Sheppard 
and  Enoch  Pratt  Hospital  in  the  Fall  of  1911.  A  per- 
sonal note  may  perhaps  be  pardoned  here.  This  hos- 
pital was  first  opened  for  patients  in  December,  1891, 
and  in  August,  1895,  I  had  the  honor  to  be  appointed 
an  Assistant  Physician,  and  have  been  connected  with 
the  hospital  to  the  present.  Dr.  Edward  E".  Brush, 
the  Superintendent,  had  always  recogTiized  the  value  of 
occupation  as  a  remedial  measure  and  had  done  all  that 
he  could  to  further  it  by  giving  patients  facilities  in  the 
way  of  room,  materials  and  necessary  tools.  In  1895 
one  man  had  quite  a  well-fitted  shop  for  metal  working, 
and  had  made  a  number  of  electric  motors  and  fans  be- 
sides numerous  other  articles.     Others  had  done  woodr 


HISTOEICAL  lY 

work.  Another  man  had  assisted  in  the  poultry  yard. 
These  are  but  a  few  of  numerous  individuals  that  I 
recall.  A  printing  office  was  opened  soon  after  my  ar- 
rival, which  has  since  become  a  fixture  and  is  under  the 
entire  charge  of  a  patient.  Besides  doing  work  for  the 
hospital,  a  number  of  charities  have  been  its  benefici- 
aries. In  1903,  when  raffia  work  was  first  introduced, 
a  nurse  was  sent  to  learn  its  use,  and  in  turn  taught 
many  patients.  Dr.  Brush  had  for  some  time  been 
searching  for  a  person  who  was  fitted  to  teach  our  pa- 
tients some  arts  and  crafts,  and  in  1905  found  a  prop- 
erly qualified  instructor  in  Miss  Grace  E.  Fields.  Un- 
der her  instruction  beautiful  specimens  of  copper, 
leather  and  weaving  were  made  by  patients,  and  grad- 
ually more  homely  occupations  were  added.  Some  of 
her  especially  interesting  experiences  have  been  re- 
corded by  Miss  Fields  in  the  American  Journal  of  In- 
sanity.^ Regular  classes  in  such  occupations  as  book- 
binding, stencilling,  block  printing,  metal  work,  wood 
work,  illuminating,  needle-work,  reed  and  raffia  work, 
weaving,  etc.,  have  been  and  are  being  given.  There 
are  at  present  eleven  teachers,  of  whom  two  give  their 
full  time  and  the  remainder  part  time  to  this  work. 
Occupation  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valued  thera- 
peutic measures.  A  library,  with  a  librarian  in  regular 
attendance,  and  regular  lectures,  concerts,  etc.,  as  well 
as  athletics  of  various  sorts,  afford  different  varieties  of 

1  Fields,  Grace  E.  The  Effect  of  Occupation  Upon  the  In- 
dividual. American  Journal  of  Insanity,  LXVIII,  July,  1911, 
p.  103. 


18  occuPATiozs:   therapy 

occupations.  This  personal  account  is  given  in  order 
that  the  reader  may  appreciate  the  value  which  is  placed 
upon  occupation  hy  those  charged  with  the  cure  of  men- 
tal diseases. 

Ahout  the  same  time  and  during  the  same  month  (Oc- 
tober, 1911),  Miss  Reba  G.  Cameron,  Superintendent 
of  Xurses  at  Taunton  State  Hospital,  began  a  course  in 
occupational  training  for  her  nurses.  Miss  Cameron 
has  no  record  of  the  exact  date  of  her  first  class,  and  as 
that  at  the  Sheppard  and  Enoch  Pratt  Hospital  was 
given  October  10,  1911,  she  has  very  gTaciously  waived 
any  claim  to  priority.  Miss  Cameron  has  an  admir- 
able method  of  instruction.  Believing,  as  do  many  of 
us,  that  occupation  is  the  most  valuable  therapeutic 
agent  in  the  care  of  the  insane,  she  personally  gives  this 
course  to  the  junior  nurses,  in  order  that  they  may  early 
in  their  training  realize  its  importance,  and  that  the 
patients  may  also  benefit  by  having  trained  attention. 
Six  nurses  are  given  instruction  in  the  morning  and  in 
the  afternoon  each  nurse  instructs  a  group  of  patients 
in  the  same  form  of  work.  This  method  is  said  to 
work  admirably. 

In  1911,  from  February  to  June,  a  course  in  Invalid 
Occupation  was  given  at  Teachers'  College,  Columbia 
University,  by  Miss  EveljTi  Collins,  a  kindergartner 
who  had  had  considerable  post-gTaduate  training  in 
manual  and  industrial  arts,  and  who  had  also  had 
some  experience  in  teaching  nervous  and  mental  pa- 
tients in  a  sanitarium.  This  was  an  elective  course  and 
occupied  a  three  hour  period  during  each  week.    It  con- 


HISTORICAL  19 

sisted  of  lectures,  practical  work  and  demonstrations  of 
the  forms  of  handicraft  which  have  been  found  to  be 
most  popular.     This  course  is  given  each  year. 

At  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  as  a  part  of  her  train- 
ing, the  nurse  is  on  duty  for  three  months  at  the  Henry 
Phipps  Psychiatric  Clinic,  during  three  weeks  of  which 
she  is  given  special  instruction  in  occupation  by  Mrs. 
Eleanor  Clark  Slagle,^  who  has  had  extensive  experi- 
ence in  this  work,  having  been  connected  with  the  Chi- 
cago School  of  Civics  and  Philanthropy,  and  having 
organized  the  occupation  work  in  a  number  of  hospitals. 
The  nurse  practically  has  individual  attention  for  four 
and  a  half  hours  daily,  a  total  of  eighty-one  hours.  She 
is  not  taught  a  number  of  occupations,  but  thoroughly 
learns  the  principles  underlying  the  work.  Eeed  and 
raffia,  simple  carpentry,  weaving  and  needle-work  are 
about  all  of  the  crafts  which  it  is  possible  to  take  up  in 
the  limited  time.  The  training  which  she  receives  is 
broad  in  that  she  is  taught  that  occupation  consists  of 
more  than  craft  training,  that  all  forms  of  diversion 
and  amusement  may  be  used  to  aid  in  the  recovery  of 
the  patient. 

At  the  present  time  (iSTovember,  1914:)  these  are  all 
of  the  training  courses  in  which  occupations  are  in- 
cluded that  are  known  to  me.  A  number  of  hospitals 
and  sanitaria,  however,  train  their  nurses  in  a  less  for- 

1  Since  the  above  was  written  Mrs.  Slagle  has  taken  charge 
of  the  Occupational  Centre  of  the  Illinois  Mental  Hygiene 
Society,  and  her  place  at  the  Clinic  is  filled  by  Mrs.  Henrietta 
G.  Price. 


20  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

mal  and,  unfortunately,  less  thorougli  way,  the  nurse 
acquiring  what  she  may  through  observation.  It  is 
practically  impossible  for  her  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
basic  principles  under  these  circumstances,  and  a  lec- 
ture or  two  early  in  her  training  would  be  of  a  great 
help  to  both  her  and  to  the  patients  under  her  charge. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  occupation  is  the  most 
valuable  single  therapeutic  agent  that  we  have  in  the 
care  of  the  mental  and  nervous  sick,  and  it  seems  but 
reasonable  that  the  nurse,  who  can  aid  so  much  in  its 
application,  should  be  taught  its  principles  early  in 
her  course. 


HOBBIES  AND  THEIR  VALUE. 

On  tlie  other  liand,  there  are  quite  a  number  of  able 
psychiatrists  who  do  not  place  so  high  a  value  upon 
occupation.  In  most  cases  this  seems  to  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  not  personally  having  a  liking  for  manual 
work  of  any  sort  they  cannot  appreciate  how  much  it 
may  mean  to  others.  The  criticisms  of  some  of  these 
men  have  been  most  helpful  to  those  of  us  who  value 
occupation,  as  it  makes  us  more  critical  of  our  own 
work. 

With  but  a  moment's  reflection  it  can  readily  be  un- 
derstood that  an  occupation  which  will  appeal  to  one 
individual  will  not  to  another.  We  probably  all  know 
a  professional  man  who  has  as  a  hobby  gardening,  or 
perhaps  photography  or  carpentry.  A  dentist  of  my 
acquaintance  makes  clocks.  An  oculist  spends  his 
spare  hours  during  the  winter  in  making  a  fishing  rod, 
which  he  tries  out  during  his  summer  vacation. 

Those  who  have  read  the  Vailima  letters  of  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  may  recall  that  in  one  of  them  he 
speaks  of  having  exhausted  himself  physically  by  doing 
some  garden  work  which  he  might  have  had  some  one 
else  do  for  six  pence  while  he  was  earning  almost  as 
many  pounds  by  his  writing.  This  has  always  seemed 
to  me  to  be  an  excellent  illustration  of  how  strong  the 
craving  for  a  manual  occupation  may  be  in  a  mental 

21 


22  occuPATio]sr  theeapy 

worker.  Here  was  Stevenson  in  the  last  stage  of  con- 
sumption, a  man  pre-eminently  doing  intellectual  work, 
deriving  great  pleasure  and  satisfaction  from  going  out 
and  weeding  liis  garden  for  a  couple  of  hours.  Per- 
sonally, I  know  that  after  my  day's  work  at  the  hos- 
pital an  hour  or  two  in  the  garden  with  cultivator  or 
hoe  will  often  relieve  me  of  a  headache  when  resting 
upon  the  porch  will  not.  The  physiological  explana- 
tion is  quite  simple.  We  all  know  that  blood  flows  in 
an  increased  quantity  to  the  organ  that  is  actively  func- 
tioning, its  need  of  nourishment  and  the  excretion  of 
waste  products  being  gTcater;  therefore,  it  is  but  na- 
tural that  after  a  prolonged  period  of  mental  activity  the 
brain  cells  should  experience  a  certain  amount  of  fatigue 
of  which  we  are  conscious,  and  by  muscular  activity  we 
not  only  give  our  brains  a  rest  from  mental  work  by 
ceasing  to  do  it,  but  we  relieve  the  cells  of  actual  phy- 
sical work  by  diverting  the  increased  blood  current  to 
other  organs.  It  would  be  easy  to  find  instances  of  this 
desire  for  a  change  in  the  form  of  work,  and  "The 
Hobbies  of  Great  Men"  would  make  a  very  entertain- 
ing study.  It  would  certainly  be  interesting  to  com- 
pare the  different  methods  they  had  of  coming  off  their 
pedestals.  We  are  apt  to  invest  our  heroes  with  halos 
and  consider  them  as  belonging  to  a  race  different  from 
ourselves,  so  that  it  is  comforting  to  find  that  they  are 
human  after  all.  Richard  Watson  G-ilder  has  recorded 
how  Grover  Cleveland  spent  a  number  of  hours  chang- 
ing a  broken  multiplying  reel  to  a  simple  one.  He 
says,  "The  very  difficult,  not  to  say  unnecessary  char- 


HOBBIES  AND  THEIR  VAEFB  23 

acter  of  the  labor  (he  must  be  the  possessor  of  twenty- 
reels  in  all ! )  appeared  to  give  him  pleasure,  and  noth- 
ing more  than  the  production  of  something  simple — 
that  quality  so  characteristic  of  his  mental  habit." 

But  another  individual  may  prefer  music,  or  to  study 
the  Latin  poets,  as  does  one  celebrated  neurologist.  In 
other  words,  an  intellectual  occupation  is  desired  rather 
than  a  manual  one.  Sometimes  we  can  hardly  dignify 
the  hobby  by  the  term  intellectual,  as  the  late  Chief 
Justice  Fuller  relaxed  by  reading  dime  novels,  and  an 
eminent  internist  during  his  vacation  reads  the  light 
novels  which  have  been  published  during  the  previous 
winter. 

Those  having  it,  whatever  the  hobby  may  be,  are 
fortunate  in  having  something  which  serves  them  as  a 
safety  valve  and  prevents  their  brooding  and  worrying 
over  the  petty  annoyances  of  the  day's  work. 

We  must,  therefore,  study  carefully  to  learn  what 
form  of  occupation  is  most  suitable  for  our  patient,  and 
if  no  specific  directions  have  been  given  by  the  phy- 
sician it  is  the  duty  of  the  nurse  to  do  this. 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  OCCUPATION. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  usually  the  emotions  are 
profoundly  disturbed,  the  patient  being  depressed, 
elated  or  apathetic.  E-ibot  has  shown^  that  the  power 
of  attention,  both  spontaneous  and  voluntary,  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  emotion,  and  we  can  frequently  best 
help  our  patient  by  training  the  attention.  This  can 
most  easily  be  done  by  arousing  his  interest  in  some- 
thing, which  may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways. 
Frequently  it  may  be  accomplished  by  asking  that 
something  be  done  as  a  personal  favor  (e.  g.,  sorting 
out  cancelled  stamps,  folding  papers,  arranging  clip- 
pings, etc.)  or  that  something  be  made  as  a  gift  for 
one  of  whom  the  patient  is  fond,  or  by  doing  something 
unusual  in  his  presence  and  persuading  him  to  do  it. 
The  tact  and  ingenuity  of  the  nurse  is  often  most 
severely  tested  in  getting  a  patient  started  on  occupa- 
tion. As  a  rule  the  effort  should  be  directed  to  arouse 
the  patient  in  something  with  which  he  is  unfamiliar. 

Having  succeeded  in  arousing  our  patient's  atten- 
tion, we  must  be  careful  not  to  do  harm  by  allowing 
him  to  become  fatigued.  We  must  remember  that  his 
power  of  fixing  his  attention  is  weak,  and  we  must 
not   continue   it   too   long.      This   principle   has   been 

1  The  Psychology  of  Attention.  Translation,  1896.  The 
Open  Court  Publishing  Co.,  Chicago. 

24 


PSYCHOLOGY  OF  OCCUPATIOJSr  25 

recognized  bj  educators  for  years  and  is  the  reason  for 
the  short  lesson  periods  with  frequent  short  recesses, 
and  for  the  short  working  periods  in  certain  vocations, 
such  as  telephone  girls  and  the  girls  who  inspect  the 
little  steel  balls  which  are  used  to  form  ball  bearings. 
This  fatigue  may  be  avoided  by  a  change  of  the  form 
of  occupation. 

The  primary  purpose  of  occupation  may  be  said  to 
be  to  divert  the  patient's  attention  from  unpleasant 
subjects,  as  in  the  case  of  one  depressed.  Or  in  a  case 
of  dementia  praecox  where  the  subject  is  given  to 
day-dreaming  or  so-called  mental  rumination,  occupa- 
tion is  given  to  keep  the  patient's  train  of  thought  in 
more  healthy  channels.  In  a  case  of  mild  excitement 
occupation  will  keep  the  patient's  mind  more  contin- 
uously on  one  subject  than  is  possible  if  he  has  not  this 
stimulus  to  control  his  attention.  In  cases  of  marked 
excitement  it  is  usually  impossible  to  use  occupation  in 
treatment  which  is  usually  directed  toward  securing 
rest.  When  convalescence  is  begun  occupation  will  be 
of  value. 

In  cases  of  dementia  of  various  sorts  the  purpose 
may  be  to  re-educate,  to  train  the  patient  to  develop  the 
mental  processes  by  educating  the  hands,  eyes,  mus- 
cles, etc.,  just  as  is  done  in  the  developing  child. 

Another  purpose  of  occupation  may  be  to  give  the 
patient  a  hobby  which  may  serve  as  a  safety  valve  and 
render  the  recurrence  of  an  attack  less  likely. 

Still  another  purpose  which  is  less  often  resorted  to 
is  that  of  giving  the  patient  a  means  of  livelihood  after 


26  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

leaving  the  hospital,  it  being  deemed  wise  to  give  up 
the  former  vocation.  A  school-teacher,  v^hose  visual 
defect  had  forced  her  to  give  up  her  position,  v^as  so 
unfortunate  as  to  suffer  an  attack  of  depression.  Dur- 
ing this  she  v^as  taught  basketry  and  was  especially 
directed  to  work  by  touch  rather  than  by  sight,  in  order 
to  eliminate  eye  strain.  She  developed  sufficient  skill 
so  that  her  work  had  a  market  value. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  that  the  patient  should  be 
instructed  in  a  craft  until  he  has  sufficient  skill  to  take 
pride  in  his  proficiency.  While  this  is  proper,  I  fear 
lest  some  of  its  advocates  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that 
specialism  is  apt  to  cause  a  narrowing  of  one's  mental 
outlook,  and  also  that  the  individual  with  a  knowledge 
of  many  things  has  more  interest  in  the  world  in  gen- 
eral. I  believe  it  is,  therefore,  well  for  the  patient  to 
have  other  occupations  besides  a  craft,  bearing  in  mind 
that  occupation  is  not  restricted  to  crafts  alone.  Games, 
exercises,  music,  reading,  etc.,  are  quite  as  important. 
Rest  is  secured  and  fatigue  is  avoided  by  change.  The 
patient  should  have  a  major  interest  and  several  minor 
ones  to  direct  his  thought  in  different  channels.  It  is 
well  to  adopt  a  regular  schedule  if  the  physician  does 
not  arrange  one. 


THE  MECHANISM  OF  RECOVERY  BY 
OCCUPATION. 

The  mechanism  by  means  of  wliich  a  recovery  is 
brought  about  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  in- 
quiry. It  may  be  summed  up  by  the  word  substitu- 
tion, or  if  one  prefers,  replacement.  It  is  well  known 
that  but  one  idea  can  occupy  the  focus  of  the  attention 
at  a  given  time.  Our  depressed  patient  who  is  brooding 
over  the  fancied  sin  he  believes  he  has  committed  pays 
little  attention  to  what  is  going  on  about  him.  Re- 
peated efforts  to  get  him  interested  in  something  may 
fail,  but  success  comes  after  a  time,  and  we  find  him 
watching  a  baseball  game  with  interest.  His  attention 
is  so  taken  up  with  the  desire  for  the  home  team  to 
make  the  winning  run  that  for  a  little  time  the  depres- 
sive idea  is  driven  from  the  focus  of  attention,  and  is 
replaced  by  the  idea  of  baseball.  Other  interests  may 
be  given  to  him  and  accepted  until  at  last  he  regains 
better  control  of  his  attention  and  can  voluntarily  drive 
out  the  depressive  thoughts.  Possibly  the  accompany- 
ing diagram  which  was  originated  by  Dr.  Farrar,^ 
and  used  in  another  connection,  may  help  to  make  this 
more  clear. 

It  is  believed  that  this  diagram  is  of  such  value  in 

1  Dr,  Clarence  B.  Farrar.  The  Making  of  Psychiatric  Rec- 
ords. American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Vol.  LXII,  p.  479,  Jan- 
uary, 1906. 

27 


28  occiJPATio]sr  therapy 

understanding  mental  processes  that  tlie  entire  legend 
which  accompanied  it  in  Dr.  F'arrar's  paper  is  given 
here,  although  it  is  somewhat  long  and  is  not  necessary 
in  the  present  instance.  "We  are  especially  interested 
in  the  circle  A  which  represents  the  focns  of  the  at- 
tention or  the  conscious  idea.  In  cases  of  depression 
this  circle  becomes  small,  owing  to  the  inability  to 
voluntarily  fix  the  attention.  In  cases  of  excitement 
the  circle  becomes  enlarged  and  ideas  slip  through  it 
with  great  rapidity.  In  cases  of  dementia  the  circle 
is  ragged  and  ideas  are  not  clearly  formed.  A  little 
study,  thought  and  observation  will  prove  these  state- 
ments. Hence  it  is  easily  understood  how  occupation 
helps  the  patient  by  training  the  attention. 

SCHEMA   TO   ILLUSTRATE    THE    PSYCHOLOGIC 
ANALYSIS. 

Centripetal  or  sensory  paths  are  represented  in  blue; 

Centrifugal  or  motor  paths  in  red; 

Central  or  intrapsychic  paths  in  black. 

The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  represented  by  the  polygon  S' 

5C  M'. 

S=any  peripheral  sense  organ;    e.  g.,  the  retina. 

SS'=the  corresponding  sensory  tract;  e.  g.,  the  path  between 
the  retina  and   cuneus. 

S'— the  seat  of  primary  sensation  corresponding  to  the  sense 
organ  S;  e.  g.,  the  cortex  of  the  calcarine  fissure. 

M'=any  cortical  centre  for  motor  discharge;  e.  g.,  one  of  the 
several  centres  of  the  precentral  gyrus,  or  BROCA'S 
convolution. 

M'M=z:the   corresponding   motor    (pyramidal)    tract. 

M=:the  corresponding  peripheral  motor  organ;  e.  g.,  the  mus- 
cles of  articulate  speech. 


THE  MECHA]SriSM:  OF   RECOVERY   BY   OCCUPATION         29 

SS'M'M=the  sensori-motor  reflex  arc.  This  is  tlie  pure  re- 
flex arc  whicli  represents  the  cord  reflexes,  likewise 
the  reflexes  of  animals  which  do  not  manifest  the 
phenomena  of  consciousness,  and  may  flnally  stand 
for  the  first  unconscious  reflex  of  the  infant. 

A=the  focus  of  conscious  attention;  likewise  the  seat  of 
identification  and  interpretation  of  the  primary 
sense  perceptions  received  at  S'.  A.  may  therefore 
be  called  the  seat  of  secondary  sensation,  or  apper- 
ception. A.  is  also  the  centre  through  which  takes 
place  the  reactive  process  known  as  a  conscious 
voluntary  psychomotor  discharge,  or  act  of  the  will 
so  called. 

S'A^the  psychosensory   tract. 

Lesions    in    SS'    or    S'A    produce    respectively    peri- 
pheral or  central 
an- 

V  seesthesia. 
par- 

hyper- 
AM'=the  psychomotor  tract, 

Lesions  in  AM'  or  M'M  produce  respectively  central 
or  peripheral 
a- 

hypo- 
para-        ^  tmesis. 

hyper-  J 
SAM=the  psychic  reflex  arc,  the  arc  of  normal  conscious  psy- 
chosensori-motor  activity  as  displayed  in  man  and  in 
those  animals  endowed  with  associative  memory. 
The  broken  line  is  drawn  in  to  separate  the  higher 
and  lower  nervous  phenomena, — the  fields  respec- 
tively of  psychism  and  reflex  automatism.  Animals 
possessing  only  the  primary  nervous  mechanism  in- 
dicated below  the  line  may  be  called  protopsy chics, 
those  possessing  the  upper  segment  as  well,  meta- 
psychics.  Neural  processes  involving  only  the  lower 
arc  may  be  spoken  of  as  pure  reflexes,  those  involv- 
ing the  upper  arc,  as  reactions. 


\ 


30  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

C=the  seats  of  memory  pictures;  association  centers.  Im- 
ages received  at  S',  interpreted  and  classified  at  A. 
may  be  said  to  enter  into  relations  with  similar 
images  already  present  in  their  respective  memory 
centres.  C.  may  therefore  be  taken  to  represent  the 
seats  of  tertiary  sensation. 

A'=zBorder  consciousness,  the  inner  circle  representing  the 
threshold.  The  relations  to  each  other  of  the  two 
circles  A.  and  A',  may  be  illustrated  by  comparing 
the  inner  circle  to  the  pupil  of  the  eye  which  dilates 
and  contracts,  and  the  area  of  the  outer  circle  to 
the  iris.  Thus  images  hovering  beyond  the  thresh- 
old may  be  said  to  become  matter  of  conscious  ap- 
preciation by  the  enlargement  of  the  circle  A.  to 
include   them. 

CC,   CA,   CA'   ACA',   etc.— Thought   processes.     Acts    of   asso- 
ciative  memory.     Lesions   in   these   tracts   produce 
a- 

para-        V  Psychosis. 

hyper-     j 

In  normal  resting  attention,  if  such  a  condition  may  be 
assumed,  the  status  mentis  may  be  said  to  be  represented  by 
the  schema  as  it  stands,  the  focus  of  consciousness  A,  being 
in  direct  connection  with  the  receiving  center  S'  and  the  dis- 
charging centre  M'.  The  centres  of  latent  memory  pictures 
Ci-5,  on  the  other  hand,  while  in  direct  communication  with 
the  border  of  consciousness  A',  as  indicated  in  the  diagram, 
are  nevertheless  not,  in  the  assumed  resting  condition,  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  centre  of  conscious  attention  A. 
Given  this  condition,  a  normal  sensori-psychomotor  phenom- 
enon might  be  described  taking  place  as  follows:  A  primary 
sense  impression  is  received  at  S'  and  transmitted  to  A. 
At  this  point  memory  pictures  between  which  and  the  im- 
pression occupying  A.  psychic  tropisms  may  be  said  to  exist, 
are  awakened  perhaps  at  C2  and  C*.  The  connections  C2A 
and  C4A  are  at  once  established  and  we  have  the  complete 
concept  represented  by  the  triangle  ACsC^A.  The  entire  re- 
active   phenomenon    would    therefore    be    indicated    thus, — 


1 


THE   MECHANISM   OF   RECOVERY   BY   OCCUPATION  31 

SS'A  (AC2C4A)M'M.  Such  a  phenomenon  may  be  called 
a  conscious  process. 

The  concept  (ACsC^A)  has  now  become  a  unit  and  may 
be  represented  henceforth  perhaps  by  Cs. 

If  now  on  the  next  occasion  when  a  sense  impression  hav- 
ing a  psychic  affinity  for  Ca  reaches  S',  a  state  of  preoccu- 
pation be  assumed,  the  psycho-sensory  Impulse  may  be 
stopped  at  A'  and  be  at  once  shunted  off  without  traversing 
A.  at  all.  The  reaction  may  take  place  in  a  similar  way  and 
we  have  the  phenomenon  SS'A'CsA'M'M.  This  would  consti- 
tute a  subconscious  process. 

Assuming  in  the  next  place  a  still  greater  abstraction  of 
consciousness,  we  may  conceive  of  psychic  events  which  not 
only  do  not  pass  through  the  focus  of  consciousness  but  which 
do  not  even  impinge  upon  the  border  consciousness,  and  are 
therefore  perhaps  not  re-suggestible.  Such  a  phenomenon 
would  be  represented  by  SS'CsM'M,  and  might  be  spoken  of  as 
a  paraconscious  process.  All  the  elements  of  consciousness 
must  be  assumed  to  be  variants,  and  the  area  of  the  circle  A' 
may  vary  within  wide  limits.  The  processes  described  as  sub- 
conscious and  paraconscious  may  differ  from  each  other, 
therefore,  only  in  degree. 

Finally  we  have  the  unconscious  processes  of  the  vegetative 
and  automatic  functions,  represented  by  the  lower  arc 
SS'M'M. 

It  will  at  once  be  seen  how  both  the  variations  in  normal 
mentality  and  the  various  pathologic  states  can  be  graphically 
represented  by  slight  alterations  in  the  several  centres  or 
connecting  lines  of  the  schema.  For  example,  in  a  normal 
psychic  state  the  border  consciousness  A'  may  be  compared 
with  a  filter  through  which  pass  to  A.  only  those  memory 
impressions  which  have  a  necessary  affinity  with  the  image  at 
the  time  occupying  the  focus  of  consciousness,  all  other  mem- 
ory images  being  repressed  in  the  subconscious  sphere.  In 
the  state  of  the  so-called  maniacal  flight,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  filter-function  of  A'  may  be  said  to  be  defective  or  ab- 
sent and  a  great  variety  of  centres  stands  at  once  in  connec- 
tion with  A.  This  condition  would  be  represented  by  extend- 
ing all  the  lines  C^A',  C2A',  C3A',  etc.,  until  they  touch  the 


1 

/  n 

\ 

\  --Y  ,-  \ 

'A   ]       y        1 

^ 

2x 

^ 

„^ 

/V-fl^ 

A^ 

^ 

\ 

\/ 

\\^) 

)\y 

- 

\ 

1 

7^^ 

\\ 

/ 

'   \ 

17 

/ 

<< 

\\V 

7 

M' 


M 


Fig.  1. — Schema  to  Illustrate  the  Psychologic  Analysis. 


THE  MECHANISM   OF   RECOVERY   BY  OCCUPATION"  33 

inner  circle,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  by  conceiv- 
ing the  circle  A.  dilated  until  it  coincides  with  A'. 
Other  pathologic  variations  will  readily  suggest  themselves. 

According  to  Bertschinger/  recovery  in  cases  of  de- 
mentia praecox,  or  schizophrenia,  as  some  prefer  to 
call  this  condition,  takes  place  in  three  ways,  one  of 
which  is  by  desymbolization ;  that  is,  subconscious 
thoughts  are  brought  into  accord  with  the  facts  of  ex- 
ternal reality.  Surely  there  is  no  better  way  of  ac- 
complishing this  than  by  manual  occupation.  Experi- 
ence easily  proves  this,  and  Dr.  Smith  Ely  Jelliffe,^ 
in  an  admirable  article,  has  recommended  that  "in  the 
general  run,  books  should  be  neglected  for  occupations 
in  the  nature  of  manual  and  muscular  training." 
Other  authors  might  be  cited  but  it  seems  unnecessary. 

1  Bertschinger,  H.,  Heilungsversuche  bei  Schizophren.  All- 
gemeine  Zeitschrift  fuer  Psychiatrie.     Band  68,  1911,  p.  209. 

2Jelliffe,  Smith  Ely.  The  Signs  of  Pre-dementia  Praecox: 
Their  Significance  and  Pedagogic  Prophylaxis.  American 
Journal  of  Medical  Sciences,  Vol.  CXXXIV,  p.  157,  August, 
1907. 


THE  NURSE  IN  THE  HOSPITAL. 

Tlie  nurse  in  the  hospital  has  certain  advantages  and 
disadvantages  which  are  not  met  with  by  her  sister 
who  is  specialling  a  case  in  a  home.  Among  the  first 
may  be  mentioned  the  possibility  of  occupying  the  pa- 
tients in  "gangs" — ^here,  example  is  a  great  incentive. 
Patients  are  less  apt  to  sit  by  idly  when  their  com- 
panions are  working.  Then,  too,  it  is  much  easier  to 
cause  patients  to  forget  themselves  in  games  where 
there  is  more  competition  than  is  possible  in  two- 
handed  games.  In  the  latter  the  patient  is  very  apt 
to  think  that  he  has  absolutely  no  chance  to  win,  and 
is  less  likely  to  make  the  effort.  The  chief  disadvantage 
is  that  there  is  less  opportunity  for  individual  attention, 
and  in  certain  cases  this  is  especially  unfortunate. 

Usually  in  hospitals  there  is  a  director  of  occupa- 
tion, often  one  of  the  physicians,  who  superintends  the 
various  industries  and  crafts,  and  selects  the  kind  of 
occupation  that  the  patient  shall  have.  The  nurse  may 
feel  that  this  lessens  her  responsibility  in  occupying  the 
patient  who  refuses  to  do  the  work  prescribed,  but  if 
she  is  really  conscientious  she  will  know  that  such  is 
not  the  case,  and  if  she  fails  to  get  a  patient  interested 
in  a  prescribed  occupation,  it  is  her  duty  to  discover 
the  reason,  and,  if  possible,  to  find  another  in  which 
the  patient  will  be  interested. 

In  hospitals  it  is  important  that  things  should  move 

34 


THE  NUESE   IN   THE   HOSPITAL  35 

on  a  regular  schedule  in  order  that  everything  should 
work  smoothly  and  that  there  be  no  confusion.  This 
becomes  so  much  a  matter  of  habit  to  us  that  we  may 
fail  to  realize  how  beneficial  this  regular  life  may  be  to 
patients,  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases,  and  especially  in  dementia  praecox,  a 
regular  life  has  much  to  do  with  improvement  or  re- 
covery. Tor  this  reason  it  is  important  that  classes  or 
occupation  periods  be  conducted  on  a  regular  schedule. 
This  is  usually  arranged  by  the  director,  but  it  is  the 
nurse's  duty  to  see  that  the  schedule  is  lived  up  to. 

The  question  of  rewards  is  one  which  is  important 
and  concerning  which  it  is  desirable  to  have  some  ac- 
curate information  which  the  nurse  can  often  obtain 
better  than  anyone  else.  Do  patients  work  with  more 
interest  if  there  is  some  prize  offered?  "What  form 
should  this  take  ?  Should  it  be  some  tangible  trifle  or 
should  it  be  the  granting  of  a  privilege  ?  These  are 
but  few  of  the  questions  which  have  been  asked  and 
which  have  not  yet  been  answered  authoritatively.  It 
would  seem,  however,  that  as  a  rule  the  granting  of  a 
privilege  is  better  than  a  small  prize,  though  it  may  be 
well  to  hold  an  occasional  party  at  which  the  patients 
make  things  in  competition  for  a  prize,  such  as  a  box 
of  candy,  ornament,  etc.  The  idea  of  competition  is 
stimulating  to  some  persons  and  discouraging  to  others, 
so  that  it  seems  that  a  judicious  mixture  of  the  two 
methods  may  be  best. 

In  some  hospitals  there  are  at  times  special  classes 
conducted  under  the  direction  of  a  non-resident  teacher 


36  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

who  is  an  expert  in  her  craft.  Such  a  person  may  in 
the  enthusiasm  for  the  work  lose  sight  of  the  special 
object  of  occupation  therapy,  which  is  to  develop  the 
initiative  of  the  patient  and  not  to  make  him  a  trained 
craftsman.     The  last  is  a  very  secondary  object. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  director  or  teacher  to  keep 
record  of  the  likes,  dislikes,  and  capabilities  of  the  pa- 
tients in  the  form  of  a  card  index.  A  form  for  one  of 
these  cards  which  has  been  successfully  used  is  shown 
below,  but  may  possibly  be  better  adapted  to  local  con- 
ditions by  some  changes.  The  charge  nurse  can  do 
much  to  aid  in  keeping  these  cards  accurately. 

OCCUPATION  CARD. 

ITame Former  Occupation 

(Underscore  occupations  in  which  patient  expresses  an 
interest.)       Crocheting,     Sewing,     Tatting,     Knitting, 

Drawn-work,   Quilting,  Embroidery,  Weaving 

Other  Occupations  ?    

Does   she  play   Checkers,    Dominoes,    Croquet,    Cards 

(What   Games)  ?    

Has  she  musical  ability?     (Give  full  details.) 

"^^Tiat  kinds  of  books  does  she  read?  (Give  full  de- 
tails.)     


Can  she  read  aloud  acceptably  ?...., 
Does  she  wish  to  do  her  own  sewing  ? , 
Her  own  laundry  ? .  .  . 


THE  NFKSE   IN   THE    HOSPITAL  37 

Would  patient  be  helpful  in  teaching  or  assisting  other 

patients  in  classes  or  groups  ? 

Do  jou  know  of  any  other  special  interest  or  ability? 

(Reverse.) 

Does  patient  write  a  good  hand  ? Does  she 

need  to  wear  glasses  ? Is  she  willing  to 

work  in  sewing-room,  laundry  or  other  department  for 

a  half  day  ? For  a  whole  day  ? 

Make  a  note  of  all  special  requests  for  materials ;  of 
spontaneous  efforts  at  occupation,  or  of  other  facts  help- 
ful in  planning  therapeutic  employments. 

A  record  of  the  patient's  attendance,  manner  of 
work,  interest,  etc.,  should  also  be  kept  by  the  teacher 
of  the  particular  class  attended,  and  these  records 
should  form  a  part  of  the  patient's  clinical  history 
when  discharged,  as  from  them  may  be  derived  in- 
formation of  considerable  value  to  the  physician.  It 
seems  better  that  these  should  be  in  the  form  of  fre- 
quent notes  and  comment  rather  than  a  set  form,  as  in 
the  latter  case  much  that  is  of  interest  may  be  lost. 
Miss  Field's  paper,  previously  referred  to,  gives  an  ad- 
mirable example  of  what  may  be  done. 


PUZZLES,  CATCHES,  ETC. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  nurse  to  start  her  occupation 
armamentarium  by  collecting  a  number  of  catches  and 
puzzles  and  placing  them  in  a  scrap-book,  which  she 
is  directed  to  make  later  on  page  160.  Their  espe- 
cial value  is  that  they  may  be  used  to  first  engage  the 
attention  of  the  patient,  cause  him  to  take  an  interest 
in  the  nurse,  and  accept  more  willingly  the  suggestions 
made  for  other  forms  of  occupation. 

Picture  puzzles,  the  dissected  or  cut  up  pictures, 
which  have  been  so  popular  in  present  years  are  always 
of  value  and  should  be  freely  used.  Directions  for 
making  them  will  be  found  on  pages  128-130. 

The  following  catches  are  offered  because  they  have 
been  found  useful,  but  there  are  a  great  number  which 
are  as  good  and  which  the  nurse  may  find  to  be  as 
useful. 

If  the  B  mt  put  : 

If  the  B    .    putting  : 

Ans. — If  the  grate  be  (great  B)  empty,  put  coal  on 
(colon) .  If  the  grate  be  full,  stop  fperiod=full  stop) 
putting  coal  on. 

To  whom  and  where  would  the  postoffice  send  a  let- 
ter addressed  thus  ? 

Wood 
John 
Mass 
Ans. — John  Underwood,  Andover,  'Mass. 

38 


PUZZLES,.  CATCHES,   ETC.  39 

What  did  the  Frenchman  mean  when  he  wrote  these  ? 

P 
J  a  J 

Ans. — Jai  a-petit.     Jai  souper   (sous  p). 

If  you  know  that  your  patient  is  somewhat  familiar 
with  Latin,  he  may  be  asked  to  translate  the  following : 

I  Sabilli,  heres  ago 
Tortibus  es  in  aro 
'Nos  es  billi  Thebe  dux 
Buthew  usent,  Thewust  rux. 

Ans. — I  say,  Billy,  here's  a  go, 
Forty  busses  in  a  row. 
JSTo,  sez  Billy,  they  be  ducks. 
But  they  wasn't;  they  was  trucks. 

How  do  you  pronounce  Phtholognyrrh  ? 
Ans. — Turner.     Phth=T  as  in  phthisis,  olo^ur  as 
in  colonel,  gTL=n  as  in  gnat,  yrrh=er  as  in  myrrh. 

MATCH  PUZZLE. 

A  good  puzzle  game  can  be  played  with  matches.  It 
will  cause  a  great  deal  of  amusement.  The  questions 
to  be  solved  are  these : 

1.  Arrange  ten  matches  so  as  to  make  a  man  out  of 
them. 

2.  Out  of  eleven  matches  make  one. 


40  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

3.  Arrange  ten  matches  so  as  to  make  a  monkey  out 
of  them. 

4.  Take  nine  matches  and  make  a  donkey  out  of 
them. 

5.  Turn  eleven  matches  into  seven  dozen. 

6.  Make  a  boat  out  of  seven  matches. 

7.  Arrange  ten  matches  so  as  to  make  only  two. 

8.  Make  a  tub  out  of  seven  matches. 

Ans.^ — The  matches  are  arranged  to  form  letters  and 
words.  Thus  the  answer  to  1  is  MAIST,  four  matches 
forming  the  M  and  three  for  both  A  and  'N,  a  total  of 
ten.  The  only  exception  is  6,  where  a  crude  boat  is 
outlined.  A  further  catch  is  the  substitution  of  a  syn- 
onym in  3  and  4,  as  APE  for  monkey,  and  ASS  for 
donkey.  The  answer  to  5  is  expressed  in  Roman  nu- 
merals, as  LXXXIV.     (See  Fig.  2.) 

WHAT  CITIES  ARE  THESE? 

All  of  these  are  cities  in  the  IT.  S.  except  17,  18  and 
23.  17  is  in  China,  18  in  Great  Britain,  and  23  is  in 
Arabia. 

1.  Where  all  have  been.  1.  Boston. 

2.  A  great  engineering  feat.  2.  Wheeling,  West  Vir- 

ginia, on  the  Ohio. 

3.  An    improvement    on    the    ship         3.  Newark. 

which     grounded     on     Mount 
Ararat. 

4.  A  military  defence,  and  a  Paris         4.  Fort  Worth. 

dressmaker. 
5   A  city  whose   end  and   aim   is         5.  Chicago, 
"go." 


'fl    " 


ib-nowiw^*^ 


\      \        \ 


3^V- 


^ 


"x--  ^: 


**"-■--.. v 


S  \ 


Fig.  2. — Answers  to  Match  Puzzles. 


PUZZLES,   CATCHES,  ETC. 


41 


6. 

Our  board  of  city  fathers,  also  a 
precipice. 

6.  C( 

3uncil  Bluff. 

7. 

An  accident  which  results  in  a 
ducking. 

7. 

Sioux  Falls. 

8. 

An   exclamation,    an   appeal    to 
maternity,  a  laugh. 

8. 

Omaha. 

9. 

An  opera  encore. 

9. 

Sing   Sing. 

10. 

Named  from  the  king  of  France 
who  reigned  from  1226  to  1270 
A.D. 

10. 

Louisville. 

11. 

A    deceased    farmer    who    was 
twice  dictator  of  Rome. 

11. 

Cincinnati. 

12. 

Named     for     an     ancient     city 
whose   downfall   after  a  long 
seige   avenged   the   abduction 
of  a  woman. 

12. 

Troy, 

13. 

A  place  for  the  lingerers. 

13. 

Tarrytown. 

14. 

A  famous  father. 

14. 

Washington. 

15. 

A  high  place,  and  what  all  chil- 
dren love. 

15. 

Montgomery. 

16. 

A     superlative      and      rushing 
water. 

16. 

Grand    Rapids, 

17. 

A    girl's    nickname,    and    rela- 
tions by  blood  or  marriage. 

17. 

Nankin. 

18. 

A  purely  American  product,  and 
a  continuous  structure. 

18. 

Cornwall. 

19. 

A    girl's    name,    and    a    Roman 
garment. 

19. 

Saratoga. 

20. 

Harmony. 

20. 

Concord. 

21. 

Not  a  short  twig. 

21. 

Long    Branch. 

22. 

Divide  the  soil. 

22. 

Cleveland. 

23. 

A  noted  blade. 

23. 

Damascus. 

24. 

A  match  of  the  olden  time. 

24. 

Flint. 

25. 

Unparalleled   surgery. 

25. 

Lansing. 

26. 

Adam's  Ale. 

26. 

Clear  "Water. 

These  last  two  series  are  excellent  because  they  lead 
the  solver  on  from  one  to  the  next. 


READING. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  nurse  learn  to  read  well. 
If  her  voice  is  harsh  or  shrill,  or  her  pronunciation  is 
bad  she  should  strive  to  overcome  these  defects.  The 
first  by  listening  to  others  speak  and  so  educating  her 
ear  to  detect  what  tones,  inflections,  etc.,  are  pleasing 
and  unpleasant  and  then  by  listening  to  herself  correct 
her  faults  after  noting  them.  In  reading,  as  in  sing- 
ing, the  simplest  and  probably  the  best  method  is  to 
listen  to  one's  self  rather  than  try  to  achieve  the  me- 
chanical stunts  in  which  some  teachers  delight.  If 
the  nurse  notes  that  she  is  prone  to  mispronounce  words 
she  should  regularly  read  the  dictionary  and  so  learn 
their  proper  accentuation.  Although,  like  the  Irish- 
man, she  may  find  it  rather  "desultory"  reading. 

The  choice  of  what  is  to  be  read  must  be  left  to  the 
nurse's  tact,  and  it  is  very  difiicult  to  give  any  general 
rules  which  will  apply  to  the  majority  of  cases.  Some- 
times when  the  patient  is  mute  and  depressed  the  phy- 
sician orders  the  nurse  to  read  for  half  an  hour  from 
a  certain  book,  possibly  a  dull  one.  The  recurrence  of 
this  each  day  at  a  regular  time  may  finally  irritate  the 
patient,  who  wishes  to  be  undisturbed  in  his  misery,  so 
that  he  begs  the  nurse  to  stop,  when  a  bargain  can  be 
made  that  he  shall  speak.  Or,  the  book  being  less  dull, 
the  patient  may  gradually  show  an  interest,  even  beg 
for  a  longer  reading,  to  learn  if  the  villain  really  gets 

42 


BEADING  43 

her.  Here  he  may  be  persuaded  to  read  to  himself,  or 
some  other  advance  may  be  gained.  About  the  only 
rule  that  can  safely  be  made  is  that  the  book  must  be 
entertaining,  and  even  this  only  applies  when  the  read- 
ing is  done  for  diversion  and  not  for  a  special  purpose, 
such  as  is  noted  above.  There  are  so  many  good  books 
that  a  choice  does  not  seem  difficult,  but  when  actually 
confronted  with  the  necessity  of  picking  out  a  volume 
which  will  amuse  or  divert  and  yet  not  contain  any- 
thing which  will  bring  up  an  unpleasant  association, 
the  task  becomes  difficult.  One  would  hardly  pick  out 
the  "Lunatic  at  Large,"  and  yet  it  would  be  much  more 
entertaining  and  diverting  to  a  peevish  lady  who  has 
become  depressed  through  having  alienated  her  hus- 
band than  would  a  "sweet  pretty"  love  story.  The 
nurse  should  know  something  about  the  book  she  reads 
either  from  her  own  or  others'  knowledge  of  it.  In  a 
hospital  the  librarian  is  able  to  give  information  about 
suitable  books.  When  there  is  no  librarian  to  consult, 
the  nurse's  tact  must  aid  her  in  a  choice,  although  she 
will  get  much  help  from  a  list  compiled  by  Miss  Jones, 
entitled,  "A  Thousand  Books  for  the  Hospital  Li- 
brary," ^  the  foreword  of  which  contains  many  helpful 
hints  and  which  is  also  interspersed  with  brief  com- 
ment on  the  works  named. 

There  are  a  number  of  books,  poems,  etc.,  which  may 
be  helpful  to  patients.     One  who  was  depressed  said 

1  Jones,  Edith  Kathleen.  A  Thousand  Books  for  the  Hos- 
pital Library.  1913.  American  Library  Association  Publish- 
ing Board,  78  E.  Washington  Street,  Chicago.      25  cents. 


44  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

that  what  started  her  on  the  road  to  recovery  was  read- 
ing "Success  comes  in  cans,  failure  in  can'ts"  in  the 
daily  motto  frame  on  her  ward.  The  following  poem 
might  be  helpful,  especially  if  the  book  of  the  same 
title  should  be  on  hand. 

EVERYBODY  IS. 

Way  down  deep  within  their  hearts 

Everybody's  lonesome. 
Far  within   their  secret  parts 

Everybody's  lonesome. 
Makes  no  difference  how  they  smile. 
How  they  live  or  what  their  style; 
Once  in  every  little  while 

Everybody's  lonesome. 

People  first  in  big  affairs — 

Even  they  are  lonesome. 
Maybe  like  to  put  on  airs; 

Just  the  same,  they're  lonesome. 
Men  for  whom  existence  blends 
Every  good;  who  gain  all  ends, 
Still  reach  out  their  hands  for  friends; 

Everybody's  lonesome. 

Women,  silk-clad,  jeweled  fine. 

Yes,  they,  too,  are  lonesome. 
When  their  gems  the  brightest  shine. 

They  are  just  as  lonesome, 
Some  must  serve  and  some  command, 
All  still  seek,  with  groping  hand. 
Love,  and  friends  who  understand; 

Everybody's  lonesome. 


KEADING  45 

Though  your  gift  of  friendship's  small. 

Everybody's  lonesome. 
It  may  answer  someone's  call; 

Someone  who  is  lonesome. 
Give  and  give  with  might  and  main. 
Give  your  hands  and  join  the  chain; 
And  your  gift  will  be  your  gain, 

Some  time  when  you're  lonesome. 

— Detroit  News. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  how  mucli  tlie  emotion 
fear  enters  into  and  controls  our  daily  lives  because  as 
a  rule  it  is  subconscious  and  we  do  not  recognize  it 
without  thought  and  self-examination.  We  do  not 
speak  to  the  stranger  beside  us  on  the  car  because  we 
fear  that  he  will  think  us  presuming,  or  may  answer  in 
a  way  to  humiliate  us  or  hurt  our  feelings.  We  do  not 
help  the  old  woman  pick  up  the  contents  of  her  spilt 
market  basket  because  we  fear  lest  we  appear  ridiculous 
to  some  passing  acquaintance.  It  is  fear  which  causes 
many  people  to  become  reserved,  stiff,  dig-nified,  etc.  It 
also  causes  many  young  people  to  become  what  Dr. 
Hoch  has  called  "shut  in."  That  is,  they  are  afraid 
to  express  their  emotions  lest  they  be  ridiculed,  and 
gradually,  as  a  refuge  from  their  lonely,  isolated  life, 
they  begin  to  live  a  dream  life  and  in  time  a  psychosis, 
dementia  praecox,  develops.  Sometimes  a  book,  such 
as  "Everybody's  Lonesome"  or  something  else  which 
may  be  read,  may  make  an  impression  and  lead  to  a 
more  healthy  manner  of  thought. 

Persons  who  are  neurasthenic  and  those  who  are  un- 
der the  influence  of  some  healing  fad,  such  as  Chris- 


46  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

tian  Science,  'New  Thouglit,  etc.,  may  be  lead  into  nor- 
mal ways  of  thinking  by  reading  a  little  book  called 
"The  Conquest  of  ^Nerves"  ^  by  Dr.  Courtney.  There 
are  quite  a  number  of  other  books  which  may  aid  pa- 
tients in  mental  training  such  as  those  by  Annie  Pay- 
son  Call,^  and  others.^ 

Mental  development  may  be  fostered  also  by  a  read- 
ing course,  or  if  the  patient  is  able,  by  some  course  of 
study  perhaps.  The  nurse  must  remember,  however, 
that  she  is  not  a  teacher  but  a  fellow  student,  and  this 
attitude  should  be  held  no  matter  what  form  of  work  or 
play  is  going  on.  Participation  is  emphasized  by  Miss 
Tracy  and  is  a  cardinal  principal. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  some  form  of  reading 
matter  within  reach  of  the  patient  so  that  he  may  amuse 
himself  if  he  so  desires.  The  illustrated  periodicals  are 
especially  useful  for  this  purpose. 

A  reading  course  in  the  history  of  art,  or  of  English 
or  American  literature,  may  do  much  to  awaken  the 
convalescent  patients'  interests.     There  are  many  books 

1  Courtney,  J.  W.,  M.  D.  The  Conquest  of  Nerves.  New 
York,  1911,  The  Macmillan  Co. 

2  Call,  Annie  Payson.  Power  Through  Repose.  As  a  Mat- 
ter of  Course.  The  Freedom  of  Life.  Boston,  Little,  Brown 
and  Company. 

3  Cabot,  Richard  C.  What  Men  Live  By.  Work,  Play,  Love, 
Worship.     Boston,  1914,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 

Musgrove,  C.  D.  Nervous  Breakdowns  and  How  to  Avoid 
Them.     New  York,  1914,  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co. 

Walton,  Geo.  L.     Why  Worry?     Phila.,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 
Same.     Those  Nerves.     Phila.,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


BEADING 


47 


on  these  subjects,  too  many  to  name  here,  but  the  fol- 
lowing list  suggests  a  number  of  works  which  are  com- 
paratively simple  and  which  are  not  too  elaborate. 
These  or  substitutes  can  probably  be  procured  from  the 
nearest  library. 

ART. 

Reinach,  Solomon.  Apollo.  An  illustrated  manual  of  the 
History  of  Art  throughout  the  Ages.  New  York,  1910,  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons,  $1.50. 

Ars  Una:  Species  Mille.  A  new  Universal  and  International 
Series  of  Art  Manuals.  These  are  written  by  various  au- 
thorities on  the  art  of  various  countries  and  are  excellent. 
Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 

Masters  in  Art.  A  series  of  monographs  published  from 
1900  to  1909  by  Bates  and  Guild  Company,  Boston,  Mass. 
Single  issues  and  complete  volumes  probably  can  be  pro- 
cured. These  are  most  interesting,  and  ten  plates  illustrate 
each  artist-subject. 

Artist-Biographies.  A  series  of  thirty  biographies  pub- 
lished in  the  late  70's  by  James  R.  Osgood  and  Company, 
Boston.     These  are  not  illustrated  but  are  good. 

Masterpieces  in  Colour.  Edited  by  T.  Leman  Hare.  New 
York,  F.  A.  Stokes  Co.,  London,  T.  C.  and  E.  C.  Jack.  These 
monographs  are  very  good. 

The  Painter's  Series.  New  York,  F.  A.  Stokes  Co.  Each 
gives  sixty  miniature  reproductions  of  the  artist-subject's 
works.    25  cents  each. 

Bell's  Miniature  Series  of  Painters.  London,  Geo.  Bell  & 
Sons. 

ENGLISH   LITERATURE. 

Brooke,  Stopford.  A  Primer  of  English  Literature.  New 
York,  D.  Appleton  and  Company.  This  is  very  short,  but  is 
an  excellent  introduction  to  the  subject,  or  may  be  used  as 
an  outline. 

Beers,  Henry  A.    An  Outline  Sketch  of  English  Literature. 


48  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

New  York,  1886,  Chatauqua  Press.     This  is  more  interesting 
than  the  above  as  it  is  not  so  very  brief. 

Other  excellent  books  have  been  written  by  Newcomer, 
Halleck  and  Brooke,  and  are  used  in  schools. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

Nichol,  John.  American  Literature.  A  Historical  Sketch, 
1620-1880.     Edinburgh,  1882,  Adam  and  Charles  Black. 

Simons,  Sarah  E.  Syllabus  of  American  Literature.  This 
is  an  excellent  guide  for  suggested  readings.  Unfortunately 
no  publisher  is  noted  and  I  do  not  know  how  it  may  be 
procured. 

Newcomer,  Halleck  and  Brooke  have  also  written  text- 
books on  American  Literature. 

If  any  of  the  above  seem  to  be  too  ambitious  an  un- 
dertaking, a  substitute  may  be  found  in  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing courses,  which  were  very  kindly  given  me  by  a 
teacher  of  literature.  After  going  through  one  of  them 
the  patient  may  desire  to  extend  the  reading  and  may 
be  persuaded  to  take  up  either  the  English  or  American 
literature.  It  adds  interest  if  the  nurse  can  interpolate 
bits  of  collateral  reading  either  about  the  author  or  his 
subject.  Pictures  may  be  used  to  assist  in  fixing  sub- 
jects in  the  associative  memory.  Those  series  of  prints 
known  as  Perry  Pictures,  Brown  Pictures,  or  Cosmos 
Pictures  can  be  procured  very  cheaply.  An  atlas  may 
make  a  book  of  travel,  or  even  fiction,  more  interesting, 
for  example  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin's  Cathedral  Court- 
ship, or  the  Williamson's  Motor  Maid,  or  the  Chauffeur 
and  the  Chaperone,  will  be  more  interesting  if  the 
routes  travelled  are  shown  graphically  before  us. 


EEADUJTG  49 

BRIEF  LITERATURE  COURSES. 

I.  Short  Story  Course. 

The  Lady  or  the  Tiger? — Stockton. 

The  Man  Without  a  Country. — Hale. 

Marjorie  Daw. — Aldrich. 

The  Gold  Bug.— Poe. 

Twice  Told  Tales. 

Great  Stone  Face,  etc. — Hawthorne. 

Sketch  Book. — Irving. 

II.  Dialect  stories  dealing  with  provincial  life  in  different 
sections  of  our  country. 

1.  Negro. 

Meh  Lady,  or  Marse  Chan. — Thos.  Nelson  Page. 
Uncle  Remus  Tales. — Joel  Chandler  Harris. 

2.  Creole. 

Old  Creole  Days.— Geo.  W.  Cable. 

3.  Indiana. 

The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. — Edward  Eggleston. 

4.  Dutch  Life. 

Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York. — Irving. 

5.  Middle  West. 

Hamlin  Garland's  Stories. 

6.  Extreme  West. 
Bret  Harte's  stories. 

The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp. 
Tennessee's  Partner. 
Fitzgerald's  stories. 

7.  New  England. 

New  England  Nun. — Sara  Orne  Jewett. 
The  Revolt  of  Mother. — Mary  E.  Wilkins. 

8.  The  Brittany  French. 

The  Unknown  Quantity. — H.  VanDyke. 

9.  Western  Canada. 
Ralph  Connor's  Stories. 

10.  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Anne  of  Green  Gables. — Montgomery. 

11.  Mountaineers. — Fox. 


50  occuPATioisr  thekapy 

III.  Children's  Stories. 

Just  So  Stories. — Kipling. 
Tanglewood  Tales. — Hawthorne. 
Uncle  Remus. — Joel  Chandler  Harris. 
Nonsense  Books. — Edward  Lear. 

Also  books  by  Sara  Cone  Bryant,   Beatrix  Potter   and 
Lewis  Carroll. 

IV.  The  Ghost  Stories  of  different  Nations. 

Japan,  Germany,  etc.  (This  course  would  be  suitable 
for  very  few  mental  cases  whose  mental  make-up  must 
be  well  known  before  it  is  suggested.) 

V.  The  Fairy  Tales  of  Various  Literatures. 

VI.  Indian  Legends  and  Folk  Lore. 

Hiawatha. — Longfellow. 
Ramona. — Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

VII.  Present-day  fiction  that  is  worth  while. 

VanDyke,  Quiller-Couch,  Arnold  Bennett,  F.  H.  Bur- 
nett, K.  D.  Wiggin,  Kipling,  Waller,  Porter,  Bosher,  etc. 

VIII.  The  Evolution  of  the  Novel. 

Defoe,  Swift,  Richardson,  Fielding,  Austen,  Steven- 
son, Dickens,  Thackeray,  Howells,  James,  etc.  (Heavy 
course.) 

Nineteenth  Century  Novelists  of  England. 

IX.  American  Humorists. 

Lowell — Bigelow  Papers. 

Holmes — Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table, 

Mark  Twain — Innocents  Abroad,  etc. 

Artemus  Ward. 

Bill  Nye. 

X.  Literature  reflecting  historical  epochs. 

Scott,  Muhlbach,  Bulwer-Lytton,  Dixon,  Churchill,  P. 
Hopkinson  Smith,  Charles  F.  Major. 


PHYSICAL  EXERCISES. 

Besides  the  passive  movements,  massage,  etc.,  that  the 
nurse  learns  in  her  general  course,  it  is  necessary  for 
her  to  have  a  knowledge  of  calisthenics.  It  is  well 
known  that  unless  a  part  is  exercised  the  motor  nerves 
supplying  that  part  will  atrophy,  and  for  this  reason 
active  exercises  are  frequently  ordered  for  mental  cases. 
Sometimes  the  patient  goes  to  a  gymnasium  for  the  ex- 
ercises, but  this  is  frequently  impossible  and  it  is  well 
if  the  nurse  knows  calisthenic  exercises  which  she  can 
teach  the  patient  and  which  can  be  carried  out  in  the 
home.  Small  hand-books  giving  very  good  directions 
can  be  procured  from  athletic  goods  stores,  usually  at 
a  cost  of  ten  cents.  Larger  books  can  also  be  bought, 
one  being  My  System,  15  Minutes'  Work  a  Day  for 
Health's  Sake,  by  J.  P.  MuUer  (^^ew  York,  G.  E. 
Stechert  &  Co.)  ;  or  How  to  get  Strong  and  How  to 
Stay  So,  by  William  Blaikie  (ISTew  York,  1898,  Harper 
&  Brothers).  The  nurse  can  watch  the  newspapers  and 
periodicals  and,  with  the  articles  on  exercising  which  so 
often  appear  in  them,  make  a  very  good  manual  of  her 
own.  An  especially  good  article  was  by  Wm.  J. 
Cromie,^  which  appeared  in  the  Outlooh.  The  article 
is  well  worth  reading,  but  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 

1  Cromie,  Wm.  J.  Eight  Minutes'  Common  Sense  Exercises 
for  the  Nervous  Woman.     The  Outlook,  July  25,  1914,  p.  734. 

51 


52  OCCUPATION    THEKAPY 

cannot  procure  it  the  following  directions  are  copied  by 
permission. 

First  Exercise.  Secure  a  Turkisli  towel  of  sufficient  length 
to  enable  you  to  take  a  wide  reach.  The  towels  used  in  the 
illustrations  are  made  of  two  ordinary  Turkish  towels  sewed 
together.  Take  a  wide  grasp  as  in  position  A.  Pull  strongly 
upon  the  towel,  up  on  toes,  raising  the  arms  above  the  head, 
as  in  B.  Lower  to  A.  This  exercise  develops  the  calves  of  the 
legs,  the  arms,  the  back,  and  expands  the  chest.   (See  Fig  3.) 

Second  Exercise.  From  position  A  pull  upon  towel  and 
bend  knees  as  in  B.  This  movement  reduces  fat  on  the  hips 
and  is  a  good  balance  exercise.  Do  not  lean  forward  or  back- 
ward, but  keep  erect  as  in  figures.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

Third  Exercise.  From  a  pull  on  towel  (lower  trunk  for- 
ward, as  in  B),  bend  forward  to  a  stoop-stand  position.  This 
corrects  round  shoulders  and  flat  chest,  and  stretches  all  the 
muscles  of  the  upper  body.  The  hips,  shoulders,  head,  and 
arms  should  be  in  a  straight  line.  Practice  in  front  of  a 
mirror.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Fourth  Exercise.  This  exercise  is  performed  in  four  counts 
or  parts.  From  ordinary  standing  position,  as  in  first  exer- 
cise, position  A,  count  1;  charge,  as  in  A,  right  leg  forward. 
On  count  2  pull  on  towel,  twisting  body  to  the  right,  as  in 
B.  On  count  3  return  to  position  A,  and  on  count  4  return  to 
starting  position.  The  same,  left  leg  forward,  twist  to  left. 
This  exercise  gives  strong  waist  muscles  and  reduces  fat 
in  this  region.  Both  heels  should  be  kept  solidly  on  the 
floor,  and  rear  leg  straight.     (See  Fig.  6.) 

Fifth  Exercise.  On  count  1,  from  starting  position,  raise 
the  arms  above  the  head,  charging  to  the  right  side,  as  in  A. 
On  count  2,  keep  the  weight  of  the  body  upon  the  right  leg, 
bending  to  the  right  as  in  B.  On  count  3  return  to  position 
A.  On  count  4  return  to  starting  position.  Perform  the 
same  to  the  left  side,  bending  to  the  left.  Bend  only  the 
charging  leg.  This  exercise  is  sometimes  called  the  "liver 
squeezer,"  and  it  stretches  every  muscle  in  the  body.  (See 
Fig.  7.) 


PHYSICAL  EXEECISE  63 

Sixth  Exercise.  Grasp  the  towel  in  the  rear,  as  A.  Pull  on 
the  towel,  bend  forward,  bringing  arms  up,  as  in  B.  When  A 
is  again  reached,  bend  backward.  This  is  a  good  exercise 
for  the  abdomen  and  back.     (See  Fig.  8.) 

Seventh  Exercise.  Finish  the  exercising  with  a  deep- 
breathing  movement.  Towel  back  of  neck,  arms  together  in 
front,  as  in  A.  Arms  back  as  in  B,  taking  a  deep  breath 
while  so  doing,  breathing  out  from  B  to  A  position.  (See 
Fig.  9.) 

Eighth  Exercise. — Take  a  sponge  or  towel  bath  by  satur- 
ating either  article  in  a  basin  of  cool  water.  "Wring  the 
water  out  and  quickly  wash  all  parts  of  the  body.  Follow 
this  with  a  dry  rub.  Saw  a  dry,  coarse  towel  across  the 
back,  as  in  A,  Exercise  8;  then  up  and  across  the  back,  first 
one  side,  then  the  other,  as  in  B.  Rub  all  parts  of  the  body 
until  it  is  in  a  glow.  You  are  then  ready  for  anything  the 
day  may  demand  of  you.     (See  Fig.  10.) 

Simple  exercises  without  apparatus  are  best,  and  are 
more  valuable  if  they  can  be  done  to  music,  which  is 
usually  possible  in  this  day  of  mechanical  music. 
Rhythmic  dancing  would  appear  to  have  great  value, 
but  seems  to  be  a  little  too  difficult  for  any  but  a  pro- 
fessional teacher. 

Sometimes  the  simple  clothing  which  is  necessary  for 
freedom  of  movement  makes  a  self-conscious  patient 
embarrassed,  so  that  this  must  be  overcome.  There 
would  appear  to  be  great  possibilities  in  this  rhythmic 
dancing. 

The  nurse  should  have  some  knowledge  of  ordinary 
society  dances,  and  especially  should  she  be  able  to  play 
tennis  and  golf  in  order  that  she  may  act  as  adversary. 
In  all  playground  games  competition  is  desirable  as  it 
brings  out  the  best  that  is  in  the  children,  and  it  would 


64  occuPATioisr  theeapt 

seem  that  many  mental  patients  miglit  be  helped  in  this 
same  way.  A  knowledge  of  other  outdoor  sports  may 
also  be  desirable,  for  in  nnrsing,  as  in  everything  else, 
the  more  one  knows  the  greater  the  resources  within  one. 
Participation  is  important  even  in  the  ordinary  simple 
exercises,  and  the  nnrse  should  count  aloud  in  order 
that  the  patient  may  learn  to  do  the  exercises  rhythm- 
ically. 


CARD  GAMES. 

"Those  inventions  of  the  Devil/'  as  the  English  Pur- 
itans called  cards,  have  probably  been  the  instruments 
of  quite  as  much  good  as  harm  in  the  world.  Card 
games  are  great  helps  in  mental  training,  and  the  nurse 
should  have  a  number  at  her  command  with  which  to 
divert  her  patient.  There  are  so  many  of  these  games 
that  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  select  them,  but  there 
are  a  few  which  seem  to  be  especially  important  for 
the  nurse  to  know.  It  is  well  to  know  a  few  simple 
tricks  also,  as,  like  catches  and  puzzles,  they  may  serve 
to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  patient  and  make  possible 
further  occupation  of  this  sort. 

The  history  of  playing-cards  is  quite  interesting. 
They  are  generally  believed  to  have  come  from  Asia, 
and  in  a  Chinese  dictionary,  published  in  1678,  it  is 
said  that  they  were  invented  in  1120.  There  is  a  tra- 
dition that  they  have  existed  in  India  from  what  the 
old  colored  woman  called  times  immoral,  and  that  they 
were  invented  by  the  Brahmans.  Very  ancient  round 
cards  are  preserved  in  some  museums.  Their  inven- 
tion has  also  been  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians  and  to  the 
Arabs.  Just  when  they  were  introduced  into  Europe 
is  doubtful.  But  in  the  account  books  of  Johanna, 
Duchess  of  Brabant,  there  is  an  entry  under  date  of 
May  14,  1379,  as  follows:  "Griven  to  Monsieur  and 
Madam  four  peters,  two  florins,  value  eight  and  a  half 

55 


56  OCCUPATIOIT     THERAPY 

moutons,  wherewith  to  buy  a  pack  of  cards."  It  is  be- 
lieved that  cards  came  into  general  use  in  Europe  about 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  T\Tience  they  came  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  By  some  it  is  believed  they  came 
to  Italy  from  Arabia,  by  others  to  Spain  from  Africa 
with  the  Moors.  The  Crusaders  may  have  introduced 
them. 

Cards  have  been  mentioned  in  laws,  edicts  and  ser- 
mons. In  139Y  the  working  people  of  Paris  were  for- 
bidden to  play  at  tennis,  bowls,  dice,  cards,  or  ninepins 
on  working  days.  In  1423  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena 
preached  a  celebrated  sermon  against  cards  at  Bologna. 

The  use  of  cards  for  other  purposes  than  gaming 
dates  from  1509,  when  a  Franciscan  friar  published  an 
exposition  on  logic  in  the  form  of  a  pack  of  cards. 
Grammar,  geography  and  heraldry  soon  followed,  and 
to  these  was  applied  the  name  "scientiall  cards."  This 
branch  has  been  much  developed  in  recent  years,  and 
children  are  taught  a  knowledge  of  authors,  birds,  ani- 
mals, etc.,  by  means  of  card  games. 

There  have  been  several  histories  of  playing-cards 
written,  but  most  of  the  above  is  abstracted  from  the 
Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  in  which  there  is  a  very  in- 
teresting article  containing  many  other  facts  and  a 
bibliography.  There  is  an  excellent  collection  of  play- 
ing-cards in  Memorial  Hall,  F'airmoimt  Park,  Phila- 
delphia, which  is  worth  a  visit  by  one  interested. 

A  Simple  Card  Trick. — Take  nine  cards  and  lay  them 
down  singly,  face  up,  in  three  piles,  telling  the  patient 
to  select  one  without  naming  it.     Then  ask  him  in 


CARD  GAMES 


57 


which  pile  it  is.  Gather  the  piles  without  mixing,  being 
careful  to  remember  in  what  position  relative  to  the 
other  two  that  the  named  pile  lies.  Again  lay  them  out 
in  three  piles,  again  ask  the  patient  to  point  to  the  pile 
in  which  the  selected  card  is,  and  if  the  first  named 
pile  has  been  laid  out  last,  the  named  card  will  be  the 
top  card,  if  laid  out  second  it  will  be  the  middle  card, 
an  if  laid  out  first  it  will  be  the  bottom  card.  The 
selected  card  may  be  said  to  be  found  perpendicularly 
by  the  first  layout  and  found  horizontally  by  the  second. 
The  trick  may  be  made  to  appear  more  difficult  by 
taking  a  larger  number  of  cards,  always  the  square  of 
the  number  of  piles. 

There  are  a  great  many  other  simple  card  tricks 
which  may  prove  of  value,  but  it  is  the  games  which  are 
more  important. 

In  order  not  to  extend  this  book  too  greatly  the  nurse 
is  advised  to  buy  a  book  on  card  games,  such  as  that 
published  by  the  United  States  Playing  Card  Company, 
of  Cincinnati,  entitled  The  Official  Rules  of  Card 
Games,  and  which  may  be  bought  for  twenty-five  cents. 
This  is  not  so  complete  as  Hoyle,  published  by  Dick 
and  ^Fitzgerald  for  50  cents,  but  is  adequate  and  is  re- 
vised yearly. 

There  are  many  forms  of  Patience  or  Solitaire,  over 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five  having  been  published,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  say  which  of  these  is  the  best.  Some 
of  them  differ  very  slightly.  I  believe  that  the  follow- 
ing are  the  best  to  learn  at  first  because  they  may  be 
said  to  be  graded,   Baker's  Dozen  being  quite  easy. 


58  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

Rainbow  more  difficult,  and  Klondike  or  Canfield  still 
more  difficult.  Special  books  on  solitaire  may  be  pur- 
cbased,  but  the  U.  S.  Card  Games  gives  all  of  tlie  above 
and  more. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  Cribbage  is  the  best 
two-handed  card  game.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being 
simple,  of  not  requiring  any  special  skill  to  play  it. 
The  method  of  scoring  is  easily  learned.  Cribbage 
boards  on  which  the  scoring  is  done  can  be  easily  made, 
but  they  can  be  bought  quite  cheaply,  and  the  nurse  is 
advised  to  provide  herself  with  one.  A  very  attractive 
little  folding  one  is  made  by  Daniel  Low  &  Co.,  of 
Salem,  Mass.,  and  costs  fifty  cents. 

Euchre,  Draw  Poker,  can  be  played  by  two  or  more 
and  should  be  learned.  A  knowledge  of  Whist,  Bridge, 
Auction  and  Five  Hundred  may  prove  convenient. 

Fan  Tan,  a  form  of  solitaire  for  from  three  to  ten 
persons  is  a  splendid  game  for  ward  use. 

Dominoes. — Dominoes  is  not  generally  considered  a 
card  game,  but  as  the  pack  of  card  dominoes  made  by 
the  U.  S.  Playing  Card  Company  is  the  most  con- 
venient form  for  the  nurse  it  may  properly  be  placed 
in  this  chapter.  The  imusual  form  may  serve  to  at  once 
excite  the  interest  of  the  patient.  Directions  for  play- 
ing several  games  with  dominoes  accompany  each  pack. 
These  come  in  two  sizes,  one  of  the  ordinary  playing- 
card  size  and  the  other  smaller.  If  x  2f  inches.  The 
latter  is  recommended. 


STRING  WORK. 

The  material  for  this  may  be  found  in  every  house- 
hold. If  the  family  is  improvident  and  has  no  string 
box,  the  nurse  has  only  to  ask  the  cook  for  the  string 
from  the  parcels  the  grocer's  boy  brings,  or  the  female 
relatives  for  that  from  packages  from,  the  department 
store,  and  she  will  have  an  ample  supply.  If  the  pa- 
tient is  a  single  gentleman  without  cook  or  female 
relatives  almost  any  store  will  be  glad  to  give  a  ball  of 
string  for  a  consideration.  The  commonness  of  this 
material  makes  knowledge  of  how  to  use  it  especially 
valuable. 

String  is  a  general  term  applied  to  thin  cord  or  stout 
thread  and  is  derived  from  the  Latin  stringere,  which 
means  to  draw  tight.  The  Old  English  form  is  streng, 
the  Danish  streng,  the  German  strang. 

Our  savage  forefathers,  not  having  grocers,  or  depart- 
ment stores,  were  obliged  to  use  tendons  or  strips  of 
hide  from  animals,  vines,  twigs,  etc.,  for  the  purposes 
which  we  ordinarily  use  string. 

Commercially  we  have  twines,  lines,  cord,  and  rope. 
Twines  and  lines  are  forms  of  string.  Cord  is  between 
string  and  rope  in  thickness  (young  rope,  as  a  friend  of 
mine  calls  it),  and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
chorda^  Trench  corde,  meaning  the  string  of  a  musical 
instrument.  Rope  includes  all  varieties  of  cordage 
having  a  circumference  of  an  inch  or  more. 

59 


60  OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 

String  is  usually  made  from  cotton  or  linen,  while 
rope  is  made  from  cotton,  hemp  (which  makes  the 
best),  and  jute  which  is  used  chiefly  as  a  diluent  for  the 
more  expensive  hemp.  Jute  cord  in  a  variety  of  colors 
is  used  in  kindergarten  work  and  may  be  purchased 
from  stores  supplying  these  materials.  Eope  is  made 
from  yarn,  which  is  twisted  fibre,  twisted  so  that  it  will 
hold  together.  One  or  more  yarns  in  three  groups  are 
twisted  in  the  opposite  direction  to  form  rope. 

STRING  FIGURES. 

Probably  all  of  us  have  played  the  game  known  as 
Cat's  Cradle,  but  unless  we  have  been  so  fortunate  as 
to  read  a  most  interesting  book  by  Mrs.  Caroline  Fur- 
ness  Jayne  on  String  Figures^  we  have  not  realized 
how  much  interest  is  attached  to  it  nor  how  many  of 
these  string  figures  there  are.  The  game  is  known  all 
over  the  world,  and  the  same  figure  may  be  found  in 
widely  different  localities  under  different  names.  For 
example,  the  figure  known  as  "The  Leashing  of  Lo- 
chiel's  Dogs,"  "Crow's  Feet,"  "Duck's  Feet,"  "Tying 
Dog's  Feet,"  is  found  in  ISTorth  Queensland,  East 
Africa,  iN'orth  America,  and  the  British  Isles.  It  can 
also  be  made  in  a  dozen  different  ways.  It  is  probable 
that  the  word  Cat's  is  a  corruption  of  catch  and  that 
we  should  speak  of  catch  cradle.  Dr.  A.  S.  Hadden 
(quoted  by  Mrs.  Jayne)    has  made  a  study  of  string 

1  String  Figures.  A  Study  of  Cat's-Cradle  in  Many  Lands. 
By  Mrs.  Caroline  Furness  Jayne.  New  York,  1906,  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons,  $5.00. 


STRING  WORK  61 

figures  from  an  ethnological  standpoint  and  has  divided 
them  into  two  types,  which  he  calls  the  Asiatic  and  the 
Oceanic,  The  string  figures  of  the  jSTorth  American 
Indians  belong  to  the  latter  type.  The  chief  difference 
is  in  the  opening.  In  the  Oceanic  type  the  strings  do 
not  pass  over  the  back  of  the  hand,  but  back  of  thumb 
and  little  finger  and  across  the  palm.  This  is  called 
opening  A.  In  the  Asiatic  type  the  string  passes 
around  the  hand  as  in  the  real  cat's  cradle,  and  is  called 
opening  B. 

The  descriptions  which  follow  are  copied  from  Mrs. 
Jayne's  book  by  permission  of  the  publishers. 

String  figures  are  made  with  a  piece  of  string  about 
six  feet  long,  the  ends  of  which  must  be  tied  together 
to  form  a  single  loop  about  three  feet  long.  In  some 
races  a  thong  of  skin  is  used;  in  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  a  cord  made  of  cocoamit  fibre,  or  of  human  hair 
finely  plaited,  serves  as  a  string.  A  woven  cord  which 
does  not  kink  as  easily  as  a  twisted  cord  will  prove 
most  satisfactory;  unfortunately,  it  cannot  be  spliced, 
the  ends  therefore  must  be  knotted  in  a  small  square 
knot  or  laid  together  and  bound  round  with  thread. 

All  string  games  begin  with  an  opening,  the  object 
of  which  is  to  get  the  original  loop  so  arranged  on  the 
hands  that  a  number  of  secondary  loops  shall  cross  from 
the  fingers  of  one  hand  to  the  fingers  of  the  other,  when 
the  hands  are  held  in  what  is  called  their  usual  posi- 
tion, namely,  with  the  palms  facing  each  other,  and 
the  fingers  directed  upward. 


62  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 


REAL  CAT'S  CRADLE. 


As  Di'.  Haddon  has  pointed  out,  the  familiar  game  of 
cat's  cradle  prohablj  had  its  origin  in  Asia,  whence  it 
was  introduced  into  Europe ;  it  has  also  spread  to  some 
extent  among  the  Asiatic  islands.  It  is  well  known  in 
China,  Korea,  Japan,  the  Philippines  and  Borneo ;  and 
it  may  be  known  in  Java,  Celebes  and  Australia.  It  is 
apparently  known  in  Micronesia,  Polynesia,  and  to  the 
Amerinds.  In  Europe  it  is  recorded  from  Austria, 
Germany,  the  l^etherlands,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land, France,  and  England.  Erom  Erance  it  has  spread 
into  Northern  Africa,  for  Dr.  W.  H.  Eurness  found 
several  little  Arab  girls  in  the  tapestry  school  in  Algiers 
who  played  it  exactly  as  we  do;  they  learned  it  in  a 
Erench  school.  Of  course,  it  is  probably  known  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  which  have  felt  the  influence  of 
European  culture. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  find  any  record  of  the  time 
or  manner  of  its  introduction  into  England,  but  this 
must  have  happened  within  comparatively  recent  years, 
as  there  are  no  references  to  it  in  the  older  literature. 
Moreover,  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  name 
"cat's-cradle"  has  ever  been  given;  its  other  name, 
"cratch-cradle,"  may  refer  to  the  two  important  stages 
of  the  game:  the  "manger"  (a  cratch)  and  the  "cradle." 

In  Southern  China  cat's  cradle  is  known  as  Kang 
sok^well  rope;  in  Swatow  the  name  means  "Sawing 
wood."  In  Korea  it  is  called  ssi-teu-ki= Woof -taking; 
and  in  Japan,  Aya  ito  tori=Woof  pattern  String-tak- 


STRING  WOKK  63 

ing.  In  Germany  it  lias  various  names:  Ablieben= 
Taking  off;  Faden-abhel)en= Taking  off  strings;  Faden- 
spiel=  String  game;  Hexenspiel= Witch's  game,  and 
Auf-und  Abnelimen=Picking-up  and  taking-off.  In 
Holland  it  is  known  as  Afpakken:  Dradenspel= Tak- 
ing-off :  String  game ;  In  France  and  Algeria  as  la  scie. 
Two  persons  and  one  loop  of  string  are  required  for 
the  game  of  "Eeal  Cat's-Cradle,"  which  is  played  by 
the  persons  alternately  taking  the  string  off  each  other's 
hands  to  produce  eight  definite  figures,  which  have  been 
given  distinctive  names,  as  follows :  1,  Cradle ;  2,  Sol- 
dier's Bed;  3,  Candles;  4,  Manger;  5,  Diamonds;  6, 
Cat's  Eye;  7,  Fish;  8,  Clock.  For  convenience  in  de- 
scribing the  game  the  players  will  be  called  "A"  and 
"B."  The  terms  "near,"  "far,"  "right,"  and  "left" 
describe  the  position  of  the  strings  as  seen  by  the  per- 
son from  whose  hands  the  figure  is  being  taken. 

(i)     Cradle. 

Synonym:  Sang-tou-tou-ki= cover  for  a  hearse 
(Korea)  ;  le  berceau  (France)  ;  Wasser  (Brabant). 

First:  "A"  takes  the  string  and  passes  the  four  fin- 
gers of  each  hand  through  the  untwisted  loop,  and  sep- 
arates the  hands ;  then  with  the  thumb  and  index  of  the 
right  hand  he  turns  the  left  near  string  away  from  him 
across  the  left  palm,  and  then  toward  him  across  the 
back  of  the  left  hand,  bringing  the  string  to  the  right 
between  the  left  thumb  and  index.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, he  turns  the  right  near  string  once  around  the 


64 


OCCUPATION     THERAPY 


right  hand.    There  are  now  two  strings  across  the  back 
of  each  hand  and  a  single  string  across  each  pahn. 

Second:  Opening  A  (picking  up  the  pahnar  string 
with  the  middle  finger).  There  is  now  a  loop  on  each 
middle  finger  and  two  strings  across  the  back  of  each 
hand;  the  ''Cradle"  being  formed  by  a  straight  near 
string,  a  straight  far  string,  and  the  crossed  strings  of 
the  middle  finger  loops  (Fig.  11). 


Fig.  11. — Cradle. 


(2)    Soldier's  Bed. 


Synonyms :  Pa-tok-hpan= chess  board  (Korea)  ;  ne- 
komata^a  mountain  cat  into  which  a  domestic  cat  is 
supposed  to  transform  itself  (Japan)  ;  die  Schere  (Bra- 
bant) ;  les  ciseaux  (France)  ;  church  window  (Eng- 
land);  fish  pond  (America). 

"B"  puts  his  left  thumb  away  from  "A"  under  the 
right  near  middle  finger  string  and  his  left  index  away 


STRING  WOEK 


65 


from  "A"  under  the  left  near  middle  string,  and  then, 
by  bringing  the  thiimb  and  index  together,  picks  up  be- 
tween their  tips  the  two  near  middle  finger  strings  just 


Fig.  12. — Soldier's  Bed. 


where  they  cross  at  the  near  side  of  the  figure.  In  the 
same  manner  he  picks  up  the  two  far  middle  finger 
strings,  by  putting  the  right  thumb  toward  "A"  under 


66 


OCCUPATION     THERAPY 


the  right  far  middle  finger  string,  and  the  right  index 
toward  ''A"  under  the  left  middle  finger  string,  then 
bringing  the  thumb  and  index  together  to  hold  the  two 


Fig.  13. 


strings  where  thej  cross  at  the  far  side  of  the  figure. 
Xow  separating  his  hands,  drawing  the  right  hand 
awaj  from  "A"  and  the  left  hand  toward  "A"  (Fig. 
12),  he  carries  the  thumb  and  index  of  each  hand,  still 


STEING  WORK 


67 


holding  the  strings,  around  the  corresponding  side 
string  of  the  figure  and  up  into  the  centre  of  the  figure 
(Fig.  13)  ;  then,  by  drawing  his  hands  apart  and  separ- 
ing  the  index  fingers  ^ddely  from  the  thumbs,  he  re- 
moves the  figure  from.  "A's"  hands  and  extends  the 
Soldier's  Bed  (Fig.  14).  There  is  a  loop  on  each  thumb, 
a  loop  on  each  index,  and  a  string  passing  across  the 
backs  of  the  thumb  and  index  of  each  hand.     The  figure 


Fig.  14. 


is  formed  of  the  four  finger  loops  crossing  in  the  mid- 
dle, a  straight  near  string  and  a  straight  far  string. 


(3)     Candles. 

SjTLonyms:  Tjje-ka-rak= chopsticks  (Korea);  Koto 
=a  musical  instrument,  or  geta  no  ha=the  two  pieces 
of  wood  under  the  sole  of  clogs  (Japan)  ;  mirror  (Den- 
mark) ;  les  chandelles  (France)  ;  die  Geige  (Brabant). 

"A"  inserts  his  left  index  from  above  into  the  left 
thumb  loop,  near  the  centre  of  the  figure,  and  his  left 
thumb  from  above  into  the  right  thumb  loop,  and  then. 


68 


OCCUPATION    THERAPY 


bringing  the  thumb  and  index  together,  picks  up  be- 
tween their  tips  the  near  thumb  strings  just  where  they 
cross.  In  like  manner,  by  inserting  the  right  thumb 
from  above  into  the  right  index  loop  and  the  right  in- 


Fig.  15. — Candles,  I. 


dex  from  above  into  the  left  index  loop,  he  picks  up  the 
two  far  index  strings  where  they  cross.  He  then  sep- 
arates the  hands — drawing  the  right  hand  away  from 
"B"  over,  and  past,  the  far  straight  string,  and  the  left 


STEING  WOEK 


69 


hand  toward  "B"  over,  and  past,  tlie  near  straight 
string  (Fig.  15)  ;  and  finally  puts  the  thumb  and  index 
of  each  hand  (still  holding  the  strings)  under  the  cor- 
responding side  string  and  from  below  into  the  centre 
of  the  figure,  when,  by  drawing  the  hands  apart  and 
separating  the  index  fingers  widely  from  the  thumbs, 
he  takes  the  figure  from  "B's"  hands  (Fig.  16).   There 


Fig,  IG.— Candles,  II. 


is  a  loop  on  each  thumb,  a  loop  on  each  index,  and  a 
string  passing  across  the  backs  of  the  thumb  and  index 
of  each  hand ;  the  "Candles"  being  formed  by  a  straight 
single  far  thumb  string,  a  straight  single  near  index 
string,  and  straight  double  far  index  and  near  thumb 

strings. 

(4)     Manger. 

Synonyms :    The    inverted    cradle    (England)  ;    die 
Wiege  (Brabant). 


70 


OCCTJPATION    THEEAPT 


"B"  turns  his  left  hand  with  the  pahn  facing  upward, 
and  takes  up  in  the  hend  of  the  little  finger  the  near 
index  string,  and  draws  it  over  the  strings  toward  "A ;" 
then  turning  his  right  hand  with  the  palm  up,  he  takes 


Fig.  17. — Manger,  I. 


up  in  the  hend  of  the  right  little  finger  the  far  thumb 
string  and  draws  it  over  the  other  strings  away  from 
"A"  (Fig.  17).  Closing  the  little  fingers  on  the  palms, 
he  passes  the  left  thumb  and  index  from  the  near  side 


STRING  WORK 


n 


under  the  two  near  thumb  strings  and  up  on  the  far 
side  of  them,  and  at  the  same  time  passes  the  right 
thumb  and  index  from  the  far  side  under  the  two  far 
index  strings  and  up  on  the  near  side  of  them   (Fig. 


Fig.  18. — Manger,  II 


18).  Then,  drawing  the  hands  apart,  and  separating 
the  index  fingers  widely  from  the  thumbs,  he  takes  the 
figure  from  "A's"  hands  (Fig.  19).  He  now  has  two 
strings  passing  across  the  backs  of  the  thumb  and  index 


72 


OCCUPATION     THEKAPY 


Fig.  19. — The  Manger,  III. 


Fig.  20. — Diamonds,  I. 


STitING  WOKK 


YS 


of  each  hand  and  a  loop  held  to  the  palm  by  each  little 
finger.  The  form  of  the  "Manger"  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  "Cradle"  only  inverted. 

(5)     Diamonds. 

Synonyms :  Soldier's  Bed  again  (England)  ;  les  car- 
reaux  (France). 

"A"  now  takes  the  "Manger"  from  "B's"  hands  in 
the  same  way  as  "B"  took  the  "Cradle"  from  his  hands, 
but  the  thumb  and  index  of  each  hand  (holding  between 


Fig.  21. — Diamonds,  II. 


their  tips  the  two  crossed  strings)  are  brought  up  around 
the  corresponding  side  string  and  down  into  the  centre 
of  the  figure  (Fig.  20)  ;  then,  when  the  hands  are  drawn 
apart  and  the  thumbs  and  index  fingers  widely  sep- 
arated, he  forms  a  figure  exactly  like  the  "Soldier's 
Bed,"  but  it  is  held  with  the  fingers  pointing  downward 
(Fig.  21). 

(6)     Cat's  Eye. 

Synonyms:  Soi-noun-kal:=  Cow's  Eye-ball   (Korea); 
umano  me  =: Horse-eye  (Japan)  ;  diamonds  (England). 


74 


OCCUPATION     THERAPY 


"E"  takes  the  figure  from  "A's"  hands  in  the  same 
way  as  ^'A"  took  the  ''Soldier's  Bed"  from  "B"  to  form 
the  "Candles"  (Fig.  22)  ;  but,  although  he  has  a  loop 
on  each  thiunb,  a  loop  on  each  index,  and  a  string  pass- 


Cat's  Eye. 


ing  across  the  backs  of  both  thumb  and  index,  instead 
of  getting  the  same  figure  as  the  ''Candles,"  the  "Cat's 
Eye"  (Fig.  23)  has  two  straight  near  thumb  strings, 
two  straight  far  index  strings  and  crossed  far  thumb 
strings  forming  a  central  lozenge  and  four  triangles, 


STKIISTG  WORK 


75 


Fig.  23. — Cat's  Eye,   II. 


Fig.  24. — Fish  in  a  Dish,  I. 


76 


OCCUPATION    THERAPY 


produced  bj  the  thumb  and  index  loops,  which  may  be 

called  the  near  and  far  right,  and  near  and  far  left 

triangles. 

(7)     Fish  in  a  Dish, 

Synonyms:  Tjyel-kou-kong-i^Kice-mill  Pestle  (Ko- 
rea) ;  tsuzumi=a  Musical  Instrument  (Japan). 

"A"  inserts  the  right  index  from  above  into  the  far 
left  triangles,  and  his  right  thumb  from  above  into  the 
far  right  triangle,  his  left  index  from  above  into  the 


Fig.  25. — Fish  in  a  Dish,  II. 


near  left  triangle  and  his  left  thumb  from  above  into 
the  near  right  triangle;  then  turning  the  thumbs  and 
index  fingers  up  into  the  central  lozenge  (Fig.  24),  he 
draws  his  hands  apart,  separates  the  index  fingers 
widely  from  the  thumbs,  and  takes  the  figure  from. 
"BV  hands   (Fig.  25).    The  'Tish  in  a  Dish"  con- 


STKING  woke: 


77 


sists  of  a  large  central  lozenge,  divided  lengthwise  by 
two  straight  strings;  and  right  and  left  near  and  far 


Fig.  26.— The  Clock. 


triangles.  There  is  a  loop  on  each  thumb  and  a  loop  on 
each  index,  but  no  string  passing  across  the  backs  of 
both  thumbs  and  index. 


78  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

(8)     Clock. 

My  father,  Dr.  Horace  Howard  Furness,  tells  me  tliat 
as  a  child  he  ended  the  game  of  "Cat's-cradle"  by  form- 
ing the  "Clock"  from  the  "Fish  in  a  Dish,"  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: 

First :  "B"  arranges  the  two  strings  which  pass  from 


K 


Fig.  27.— Clock. 


side  to  side  through  the  central  lozenge  so  that,  un- 
crossed, they  can  easily  be  separated  into  a  near  string 
and  a  far  string. 

Second :  "B"  now  turns  his  left  hand  with  the  palm 
facing  upward,  and  picks  up  in  the  bend  of  the  left  little 


STKING  WOEK  ^9 

finger  the  near  string  wliicli  passes  througli  tlie  central 
lozenge,  and  draws  it  over  the  other  strings  toward  "A ;" 
then  turning  the  right  hand  with  the  paka  facing  up- 
ward he  picks  up  in  the  bend  of  the  right  little  finger 
the  far  string  which  passes  through  the  central  lozenge, 
and  draws  it  over  the  other  strings  awaj  from  "A" 
(Fig.  26).  Putting  the  right  thumb  from  above  into 
the  right  far  triangle,  the  right  index  from  above  into 
the  left  far  triangle,  the  left  thumb  from  above  into  the 
right  near  triangle,  and  the  left  index  from  above  into 
the  near  triangle,  "B"  turns  the  thumb  and  index  of 
each  hand  toward  the  centre  of  the  figure  and  up  into 
the  central  lozenge  (Fig.  27),  when,  by  drawing  the 
hands  apart,  and  separating  the  thumbs  widely  from 
the  index  fingers,  he  takes  the  figure  from  "A's"  hands 
(Fig.  28). 

When  the  figure  is  held  vertically  it  is  supposed  to 
represent  a  tall  clock. 

The  "Eeal  Cat's-cradle"  is  capable  of  some  variation: 
The  Philippine  Liano  Moros  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposi- 
tion always  passed  from  the  (6)  "Cat's  Eye"  back  to 
the  (4)  "Manger"  without  any  intervening  steps,  as 
follows:  The  "Cat's  Eye"  is  on  "A's"  hands.  "B" 
picks  up  in  the  bend  of  his  right  little  finger  the  string 
which  passes  between  "A's"  left  thumb  and  index,  and 
lifts  that  string  off  "A's"  left  index  only ;  in  like  man- 
ner he  picks  up  in  the  bend  of  his  left  little  finger  the 
string  which  passes  between  "A's"  right  thumb  and  in- 
dex, and  lifts  that  string  off  "A's"  right  thumb  only; 
then,  still  holding  each  string  in  the  bend  of  the  little 


80 


OCCUPATION     THERAPY 


Fig.  28.— Clock. 


STKING  WORK  81 

finger,  "B"  puts  his  riglit  tliiimb  and  index  (held  close 
together)  down  into  the  figure,  near  "A's"  left  hand, 
and  then  up  into  the  central  lozenge,  and  thus  picks  up 
from  helow  on  these  fingers  the  crossed  strings  of  that 
side;  in  the  same  way  '^B"  puts  his  left  thumb  and 
index  down  near  "A's"  right  hand  and  then  up  into  the 
central  lozenge,  and  thus  picks  up  from  below  on  these 
fingers  the  crossed  strings  of  that  side.  The  figure  is 
now  taken  off  "A's"  hands  and  extended  as  the  "Man- 
ger." This  may  be  the  way  that  the  Koreans,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Weir,  pass  from  the  (6)  "Cat's  Eye"  to  the 
(3)  "Candles."  Apparently  Japanese  and  Koreans  pass 
from  the  (3)  "Candles"  to  the  (6)  "Cat's  Eye"  (see 
Culin,  2,  p.  30),  but  I  do  not  know  how  it  can  be  done 
without  an  intervening  figure.  It  is  possible  to  jump 
from  the  (1)  "Cradle"  to  the  (3)  "Candles"  by  picking 
up  the  crossed  strings  as  if  for  the  "Soldier's  Bed,"  but 
putting  the  fingers  down  into  the  figure,  and  separating 
the  hands ;  then  the  "Candles"  are  held,  of  course,  with 
the  fingers  pointing  downward.  We  can  pass  directly 
from  the  (2)  "Soldier's  Bed"  to  the  (6)  "Cat's  Eye" 
by  picking  up  the  crossed  strings  from  below,  bringing 
them  around  the  side  strings  and  down  into  the  centre 
of  the  figure,  and  then  separating  the  hands. 

KNOTTING. 

In  his  excellent  little  book  on  Knotting  and  Splicing, 
Mr.  Paul  ]Sr.  Hasluck^  says :  "From  the  beginning  man- 

1  Knotting  and   Splicing  Ropes  and  Cordage.     By  Paul  N. 
Hasluck,  1909,  Cassell. 


82  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

kind  must  always  have  used  some  kind  of  knot  to  join 
animal  sinews,  plant  fibres,  or  hide  strips  which,  in  an- 
cient days  were  the  prototypes  of  the  varieties  of  cord- 
age now  employed."  He  further  states  that  as  lives  and 
property  have  been  sacrificed  by  ill  made  knots  it  is 
important  that  all  of  us  should  know  how  to  make 
knots  best  suited  for  our  purpose.  Most  of  us  have 
probably  seen  some  accident  due  to  a  faulty  knot,  even 
though  it  was  nothing  more  serious  than  a  loose  shoe 
string  or  the  spilling  of  the  contents  of  a  bundle  of 
fresh  laundry. 

The  nip  is  the  most  important  thing  about  a  knot, 
and  is  the  part  which  is  pinched  by  the  pull  on  the  cord 
and  which  holds  the  knot. 

A  higJit  is  a  loop  formed  when  a  rope  is  bent  back 
on  itself. 

I  have  selected  the  following  nine  knots  (Fig.  29)  as 
being  the  most  important  from  the  standpoint  of  occu- 
pation, as  all  of  them,  aside  from  any  special  use  which 
they  may  have,  are  useful  in  making  ornamental  or  use- 
ful articles  of  string.  At  the  same  time  the  first  five  are 
classed  as  useful  knots  and  the  last  four  as  fancy  knots. 
There  are,  however,  many  other  useful  and  ornamental 
knots,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  Hasluck  or  some 
other  book. 

Probably  the  simplest  knot  is  the  overhand  knot 
which  is  most  frequently  used  to  prevent  the  end  of  a 
rope  or  cord  from  untwisting,  or  unlaying,  as  it  is  tech- 
nically called.  It  is  made  by  bending  the  rope  back  to 
form  a  loop  or  bight,  passing  it  under  and  over  the 


Fig.  29.— Knots. 

On  the  left,  at  top,  is  an  overhand  knot;  below  a  figure-of- 
eight,  reef,  and  weaver's.  To  the  right  of  these  is  a  crown 
knot  being  formed  and  pulled  taut  below.  In  the  middle  is 
a  wall  and  crown,  or  manrope  knot.  The  lower  end  of  the 
rope  is  served.  Above  is  a  granny,  and  the  thicker  rope  be- 
low shows  a  wall  knot  being  formed,  and  pulled  taut.  On  the 
stick  is  tied,  above,  a  clove  hitch;  below,  the  beginning  of 
the  turk's  head,  shown  complete  below.  The  smaller  is  in 
better  proportion  to  the  stick,  but  does  not  show  its  forma- 
tion so  clearly. 


STRING  WOKK 


stem  and  through  the  looped  portion.  When  partly 
made  it  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  pretzel. 

If  the  loose  end  is  carried  through  the  loop  2,  3  or  4 
times  it  becomes  a  double,  treble,  or  fourfold  knot,  which 
is  larger  than  the  simple  overhand  knot. 

A  figure-of-eight  knot  is  made  by  passing  the  end  of 
the  cord  back,  over  and  around  the  standing  part  or 
stem,  and  down  through  the  loop. 

A  very  common  and  important  knot  is  the  square, 
true,  sailor's  or  reef  knot  which  is  used  to  join  the  ends 
of  cord.  To  tie  this  take  an  end  in  each  hand,  cross 
them,  laying  the  left  on  top  of  the  right,  which  is 
brought  over  and  under  the  left.  Bend  the  ends  back 
on  themselves  and  pass  the  left  end,  which  is  now  at 
the  right,  over  and  under  the  right.  It  can  be  seen 
that  we  now  have  two  loops  which  interlock  and  both 
the  stem  and  the  end  lie  on  the  same  side  of  the  op- 
posite loop.  A  very  common  mistake  is  after  bending 
the  ends  back  on  themselves  to  pass  the  left  end  (now 
on  the  right)  under  and  over  the  right.  This  brings 
the  stem  and  the  end  on  opposite  sides  of  the  loop.  It 
is  a  poor  knot  as  it  will  not  nip  until  the  first  portion 
made  has  been  pulled  and,  therefore,  anything  which 
has  been  tied  together  is  not  held  tightly.  It  is  called 
a  lubber's  knot  or  granny  and  is  said  to  be  usually  tied 
by  girls.  To  untie  a  square  knot  quickly,  pull  the  stem 
and  end  of  the  same  side.  The  description  of  these 
knots  may  appear  complicated,  although  they  are  very 
simple  and  they  can  probably  be  better  understood  from 
an  illustration.     A  modification  of  the  square  knot  is 


84  OCCUPATIOI^     THERAPY 

the  surgeon's.  Make  an  additional  turn  of  the  right 
end,  over  and  under  before  bending  the  ends  back. 
This  prevents  slipping. 

A  weaver's  knot  is  a  modification  of  the  square  knot, 
in  which  the  end  of  one  side  does  not  lie  parallel  with 
its  stem,  but  crosses  under  the  stem  and  lies  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  loop  which  retains  it — that  is,  the 
loop  of  the  opposite  side.  Weavers  call  this  the  thumb 
knot  because  they  make  it  over  the  left  thumb.  It  is 
used  to  join  the  ends  of  broken  warp.  The  same  knot 
is  used  by  netters  to  join  the  ends  of  the  twine,  and  it 
is  the  same  knot  which  is  made  by  the  netting  needle. 
The  knot  is  properly  made  as  follows:  The  two  ends 
are  crossed  over  the  left  forefinger,  the  left  lying  over 
the  right,  and  held  by  the  left  thumb.  The  right  stem 
(from  the  unwoven  warp)  is  then  brought  over  the 
thumb  around  the  two  ends,  completely  around  the  left 
end  (which  stands  up  to  our  right),  and  so  lies  between 
the  two  ends.  The  left  end  is  then  pushed  back  under 
the  loop  lying  over  the  thumb,  the  right  end  and  the 
right  stem  are  then  grasped  together  and  the  knot  pulled 
taut. 

A  clove  hitch  is  used  to  fasten  a  boat  to  a  stake  or 
pile,  although  it  may  have  other  uses.  It  is  formed 
from  two  half  hitches.  Holding  the  rope  in  both  hands 
about  two  feet  apart,  twist  the  right  hand  so  that  the 
rope  between  the  hands  twists  into  a  ring,  the  left  side 
lying  above  the  right.  Slip  this  over  the  stake,  make 
another  in  the  same  way,  pull  tight,  and  the  boat  is 
firmly  moored.     To  unfasten  loosen  the  nip  and  slide 


STEIISTG  -WOEK  85 

the  rope  to  tlie  top  of  the  stake,  when  the  rope  will 
naturally  fall  straight.  This  has  the  advantage  of  be- 
ing quickly  tied  and  untied. 

The  following  knots  are  usually  classed  as  fancy,  or 
ornamental,  in  distinction  from  the  above,  which  are 
classed  as  useful. 

The  first  is  the  wall  knot,  the  second  the  crown  knot. 
They  are  frequently  combined  to  form  a  finish  to  a  rope 
or  cord.  The  rope  or  cord  must  first  be  wrapped  with 
several  turns  of  string  which  is  tied  about  it  at  a  point 
where  we  wish  the  knot  to  come.  The  rope  is  unlayed 
to  this  point.  Make  a  bight  with  one  strand,  hold  this 
to  the  stem,  leaving  the  end  free,  which  is  passed  out- 
side the  next  strand  which  is  bent  over  to  form  a  bight 
the  same  as  the  first,  the  free  end  passed  outside  the 
third  strand,  which  is  bent  over  it  and  the  end  passed 
outside  the  first  strand  and  up  through  the  bight  which 
it  forms.  The  ends  are  then  pulled  taut  and  the  ends 
cut  off  close.  The  crown  knot  is  made  in  the  same 
way  excepting  that  the  free  ends  are  brought  inside  of 
the  next  strand  which  is  then  bent  over  to  form  a  bight 
as  above.  It  may  assist  in  fixing  these  knots  in  one's 
memory  to  associate  that  the  ends  form  a  bunch  in  the 
centre  in  the  wall  knot  and  that  they  are  all  separated 
in  the  crown,  the  end  of  the  latter  knot  being  flat  like 
the  crown  of  the  head.  Various  combinations  of  these 
two  knots  may  be  made,  the  most  common  being  a  wall 
and  a  crown  which  forms  a  manrope  knot ;  a  double 
wall,  a  double  crown,  or  a  double  wall  and  a  double 
crown  which  forms  a  tack  knot. 


86  occuPATioisr   therapy 

A  Turk's  head  is  a  very  ornamental  knot  whicli  is 
formed  on  a  rope,  or  stick,  with  a  piece  of  smaller 
stuff.  One  of  tlie  shoe  dusters,  to  which  I  have  re- 
ferred (p.  92),  had  a  Turk's  head  made  of  cane,  and 
probably  all  have  seen  walking-sticks  or  umbrellas  with 
this  ornamentation.  The  simplest  way  to  make  it  is 
to  first  make  a  clove  hitch  loosely.  The  right  end  is 
much  the  longest,  and  this  is  passed  around  the  lower 
hitch,  coming  out  between  the  two  hitches.  The  upper 
hitch  is  pulled  over  the  lower.  The  loose  end  is  passed 
around  the  upper  hitch  and  comes  out  between  the  two 
hitches,  fixing  their  position.  The  lower  hitch  is  then 
pulled  over  the  upper,  the  loose  end  passed  around  the 
lower  and  coming  out  between  them.  This  alternate 
crossing  of  the  hitches  with  the  interweaving  of  the 
loose  end  is  continued  until  the  circumference  has  been 
made,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  next  move  of  the 
loose  end  will  parallel  it  with  the  right  end.  From 
now  on  the  loose  end  is  simply  woven  in  and  out  along- 
side of  the  strand  where  it  naturally  falls,  until  each 
group  contains  three  strands.  The  length  of  cord  must 
be  more  than  nine  times  the  circumference  of  the  ob- 
ject around  which  the  knot  is  made. 

The  next  knot  is  the  Solomon's  knot  which  is  used 
considerably  in  macrame  work.  It  is  simply  a  square 
knot  tied  on  a  leader,  and  is  considered  in  detail  un- 
der Macrame. 

SERVING  OR  SEIZING. 

To  keep  ropes  from  unlaying,  or  for  other  purposes, 
they  are  wrapped  with  twine,   and   according  to  the 


STRING-  WORK  87 

manner  and  position  various  names  are  given  to  this 
operation.  What  I  had  always  known  as  serving  I 
found,  on  studying  Hasluck,  is  end  seizing.  It  is  used 
to  prevent  ropes  from  unlaying  where  an  end  knot  is  un- 
desirable, and  is  easily  done.  Holding  the  rope  to  be 
seized  in  the  left  hand  with  the  end  to  the  right,  at 
about  an  inch  from  the  end  take  several  turns  about 
it  with  a  piece  of  strong  string,  holding  the  left  end  of 
this  in  the  left  hand  and  winding  with  the  right.  After 
three  or  more  turns  have  been  made,  turn  back  the  left 
end  and  wrap  it  under.  When  the  wrapping  or  seizing 
has  come  nearly  to  the  end,  lay  the  wrapping  cord  down 
and  wrap  it  in  for  a  half-dozen  turns.  Pull  taut,  cut 
off  all  ends  and  the  rope  has  a  neat  finish.  If  the  mid- 
dle of  the  rope  is  being  wrapped,  when  it  is  desired  to 
finish  off,  lay  in  a  bight,  preferably  of  the  same  sort 
of  cord,  wrap  it  in,  leaving  a  loop  at  the  end  through 
which  pass  the  end  of  the  wrapping  cord.  Pull  one 
end  of  the  bight  and  this  will  pull  the  cord  under  the 
wrapping  and  so  fasten  it. 

BRAIDING. 

Braiding  is  really  a  form  of  weaving,  and  we  are 
probably  most  familiar  with  the  three  fold  in  the  form 
of  "pigtails"  on  our  little  girl  friends,  although  it  is 
said  that  the  same  little  girls  when  grown  up  are  in 
the  habit  of  putting  their  hairs  to  bed  in  this  same 
form.  As  most  everyone  knows,  the  three  fold  braid 
or  plait  (from  the  Latin  pleo,  I  fold)  is  made  by  tak- 
ing the  right  outer  cord,  or  bunch  of  fibre  or  hair,  and 


88  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

passing  it  over  the  next  and  under  the  third.  The 
third  strand,  which  has  now  become  the  middle,  is 
then  passed  under  the  second  in  the  opposite  direction. 
The  first  is  passed  over  the  second.  The  third  over  the 
first,  etc.  The  process  is  a  bending  of  the  outer  strand 
over  the  middle  one,  the  bent  strand  becoming  the  mid- 
dle and  being  bent  over  by  the  outer  strand  of  the  op- 
posite side,  this  being  kept  up  until  the  braiding  has 
been  accomplished  for  the  distance  desired.  Most  of 
us  have  acquired  this  accomplishment  early  in  life  and 
it  has  become  somewhat  of  an  automatic  movement. 
When  we  wish  to  braid  four  or  more  strands  in  a  fiat 
braid  it  may  seem  difficult  to  us,  but  if  we  have  mas- 
tered the  principle  that  it  is  a  weaving  it  will  after 
very  brief  practice  become  automatic.  It  is  easier  to 
work  out  these  braids  than  it  is  to  follow  directions. 
In  beginning  to  braid  four  or  more  we  have  to  start 
the  strands  in  pairs — that  is,  the  first  and  third  are 
laid  over  the  second  and  fourth,  the  two  middle  ones 
(the  first  and  fourth)  are  crossed,  the  third  is  bent 
back  over  the  fourth,  and  we  have  three  strands  lying 
to  the  left.  Bend  the  one  to  the  extreme  left  back  and 
weave  it  under  and  over  the  other  two.  Bend  the  ex- 
treme right  hand  one  over  the  next,  which  again  gives 
us  three  strands  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  process  is  a 
repetition.  In  starting  the  five  strand  braid  the  first  and 
second,  and  third  and  fourth  strands  are  crossed  in 
pairs  as  above  and  the  fifth  is  bent  back.  The  rule  to 
start  all  braiding  may  be  said  to  cross  in  pairs,  then 
cross  the  middle  pair,  after  which  it  is  simple  weav- 


STKIKG  WORK  89 

ing.  Braiding  is  easier  to  learn  if  strands  of  two  or 
four  different  colors  are  used,  as  then  any  irregularity 
in  the  braiding  becomes  at  once  apparent.  These 
braids  may  be  used  for  various  purposes  and  are  espe- 
cially effective  when  made  of  paired  strands. 

A  variation  from  the  4  flat  braid  is  the  4  round, 
which  gives  a  thicker,  stronger  and  more  ornamental 
cord  than  the  constituent  strands.  Two  persons  can 
do  this  much  more  easily  than  one,  and  it  is  more 
easily  learned  if  two  colors  are  used.  The  ends  of  the 
four  strands  having  been  fastened  to  a  stationary  ob- 
ject, one  person.  A,  takes  the  two  strands  of  the  same 
color,  one  in  each  hand  and  crosses  them — ^that  is,  the 
right  hand  strand  is  put  in  the  left  hand,  and  vice 
versa;  the  other  person,  B,  then  crosses  the  other  two 
strands  over  that  made  by  A.  A  crosses  the  cords 
over  B's,  and  this  is  continued  until  the  length  desired 
is  made.  All  braiding  should  be  done  fairly  tightly 
to  appear  well. 

A  different  form  of  braiding,  which  is  used  by  sailors 
to  make  mats  and  chafing  gear  is  described  in  Has- 
luck's  book  on  page  121. 

SPOOL  KNITTING. 

Spool  knitting,  which  some  of  us  learned  in  our 
childhood,  may  be  enjoyed  by  some  patients,  but  the 
fact  that  the  end  product  has  little  value  is  a  serious 
drawback.  Formerly  the  cord  which  was  woven  by  this 
means  was  used  for  children's  reins,  but  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  dirt  catcher  caused  careful  mothers  to  taboo  it. 


90  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

I  have  seen  an  afghan  made  of  these  cords  which  had 
been  sewn  together  side  by  side,  but  it  was  not  as  at- 
tractive as  those  knitted  or  crocheted.  The  cord  may 
be  useful  for  some  special  purpose,  however,  and  a 
knowledge  of  how  it  is  made  can  do  ns  no  harm.  Into 
the  end  of  a  spool  drive  five  pins,  or  brads,  equidistant. 
Wind  the  yarn  or  string,  which  is  the  material  used, 
twice  around  these  pins.  Then  with  a  stiff  wire  or 
fine  crochet  hook  pull  the  first  course  over  the  upper 
and  over  the  top  of  the  pin.  Continue  this,  and  in 
time  the  woven  cord  will  pass  through  the  hole  in  the 
spool. 

A  special  spool  for  this  work  can  usually  be  pur- 
chased at  toy  stores  or  where  yarns  are  sold.  This 
has  four  staples  on  which  the  knitting  is  done,  instead 
of  the  five  pins  noted  above.  On  account  of  there  being 
an  even  number  the  work  must  be  started  differently. 
The  string  is  carried  around  each  staple  instead  of 
across  it,  although  after  the  start  it  is  carried  across 
in  the  usual  way.  The  cord  made  is  less  of  a  round 
than  when  done  on  five  points,  and  may  appear  square. 
Certain  variations  may  be  made,  such  as  not  carry- 
ing the  string  across  one  space,  but  going  back  and 
forth.  Or  the  work  may  be  done  on  three  or  two  pins 
only.  Or  the  string  on  one  pin  may  be  slipped  off 
before  carrying  the  string  across  it,  so  that  no  stitch  is 
taken.  This  is  pulled  out  when  finished  to  make  a 
sort  of  edging. 

There  is  a  book  on  spool  knitting  by  Mary  A.  McCor- 
mack,  but  I  am  not  familiar  with  it.     If  the  patient 


STRING  WOKK  91 

shows  a  liking  for  spool  knitting  this  should  be  con- 
sulted. 

RAKE  KNITTING. 

Rake  knitting  is  an  improvement  over  spool  knitting, 
and  with  it  many  useful  and  attractive  articles  can  be 
made.  It  is  described  by  Miss  Tracy  in  her  book  on 
page  48. 

Very  attractive  bags  are  made  of  a  special  hard 
finished  cord.  Soft  cotton  cord  is  not  suitable  for  rake 
knitting,  although  yarn  is  excellent  material  with 
which  to  knit. 

STRING  DOLL. 

This  is  a  modification  of  a  tassel.  Usually  a  book 
or  piece  of  wood  the  length  that  it  is  desired  to  make 
the  doll  is  selected  and  the  string,  usually  white  knit- 
ting cotton,  is  wound  about  it  until  it  is  of  the  required 
thickness,  when  the  string  is  cut  along  one  side.  This 
cut  portion  is  laid  down  carefully  and  unfolded  to  its 
full  length.  A  piece  of  string  is  tied  firmly  about  the 
middle.  The  bunch  is  then  folded  over  this  cord  so 
that  it  is  entirely  covered.  Two  portions  are  kept  out 
to  form  the  doll's  plaits.  String  is  tied  about  the  re- 
maining portion  to  form  the  neck.  Two  portions  are 
selected  to  form  the  arms.  Another  string  tied  about 
the  bunch  forms  the  waist.  If  it  is  a  lady  doll  we  are 
making,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  finish  our 
plaits,  tie  and  cut  oflf  the  arms  at  the  proper  length, 
and  mark  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  with  pencil  or  black 
thread.     If  we  desire  a  boy  doll,  no  portion  is  left 


92  OCCUPATION    THEKAPT 

out  for  plaits  and  the  end  is  divided  to  form  legs. 
One  of  mj  pupil  nurses  made  an  Indian  by  using  red 
string  which  was  covered  with  brown  string  from  the 
neck  to  form  the  clothing.  Black  and  white  yarn 
formed  the  head-dress.  Many  varieties  can  be  made  in 
this  way. 

SHOE  DUSTER. 

A  more  useful  article  is  made  in  much  the  same 
way.  A  handle  about  18  inches  long  is  selected  and 
may  be  ornamented  in  any  way  desired.  It  is  notched 
completely  around  about  a  half  inch  from  the  end. 
The  cut  strings,  which  should  be  at  least  16  inches 
long,  are  tied  firmly  into  this  notch  at  their  middle. 
The  upper  portion  falls  over  the  lower  and  is  tied 
about  the  whole  bunch  below  the  end  of  the  stick 
handle.  A  loop  or  ring  is  fastened  to  the  upper  end 
of  the  handle  and  it  is  hung  outside  of  the  front  door, 
in  order  that  one  may  dust  their  shoes  before  entering 
the  house.  Carpet  warp  which  comes  in  a  great  variety 
of  colors  can  be  used,  or  cotton  string.  If  the  desired 
shade  cannot  be  bought  the  duster  can  be  made  of  white 
string  and  dyed.  The  handle  can  be  decorated  in  many 
ways.  I  have  seen  them  wrapped  with  cane,  painted 
or  carved.  Some  very  attractive  ones  have  been  on 
sale  in  the  shops. 

MACRAME. 

Macrame  is  a  variety  of  string  work  which  was  very 
popular  about  1880.  It  was  so  popular  and  so  many 
articles  adorned  our  rooms  and  became  dust  catchers 


STRING  WOEK  93 

that  there  came  a  revolt  and  it  all  disappeared.  Re- 
cently there  has  been  a  revival  of  it,  and  bags  made  of 
raffia  have  been  nsed  for  several  years.  Some  macrame 
is  very  beautiful.  Louisa  Walker^  says  (p.  160)  : 
"Macrame  or  knotted  lace  is  of  very  ancient  origin, 
and  was  much  used  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  in  Spain 
and  Italy  in  the  16th  Century.  In  the  time  of  Queen 
Mary  it  was  made  on  a  pillow  and  was  used  to  make 
ornamental  covers  for  handbags  and  other  articles 
which  were  lined  with  colored  silks.  The  word  ma- 
crame is  of  Arabic  origin  and  was  applied  by  the 
Italians  to  the  ornamental  fringe  produced  by  knotting 
the  ends  of  their  coarse  towels ;  a  more  appropriate 
term  is  knotting."  The  book  from  which  the  above 
quotation  is  made  contains  directions  for  macrame  and 
a  number  of  other  attractive  things,  but  also  shows 
many  horrible  examples  of  what  can  be  done  with 
string. 

Macrame  is  best  worked  on  a  board  to  which  the 
doubled  strings,  called  leaders,  are  tacked,  or  they  may 
be  "cast  on"  a  stick  by  being  looped  over  it.  The  cord 
is  bent  into  a  bight  which  is  passed  over  the  stick  and 
the  two  ends  are  passed  through  it  and  pulled  taut. 
This  is  sometimes  called  a  slip  knot,  but  is  really  a 
running  knot.  The  so-called  macrame  knot  consists 
of  plain  buttonhole  stitches  worked  over  a  cord,  the 
leader,  which  must  be  held  taut  while  making  the 
knot. 

1  "Walker,    Louisa.      Varied    Occupations    iu    String    "Work. 
London,  1896,  Macmillan. 


04  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

Seine  twine  is  usually  used.  This  comes  in  several 
sizes  and  colors,  and  may  be  dyed  if  desired. 

For  specific  directions  for  making  articles  in  ma- 
crame  I  would  refer  to  Louisa  Walker's  book  or  some 
other  work  especially  on  the  subject.  I  have,  how- 
ever, thought  it  best  to  give  the  directions  for  making 
a  macrame  bag  as  it  is  an  excellent  exercise  in  knot- 
ting, and  when  made  with  raffia  makes  a  useful  article. 
There  are  a  number  of  so-called  "bars"  (Fig.  30) 
which  are  used  in  the  work  which  may  be  applied  to 
other  forms.  These  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
plate  and  are  rather  simply  made.  As  is  shown,  they 
are  all  made  on  a  leader.  The  first,  called  corkscrew, 
consists  of  a  buttonhole  stitch  to  the  right — that  is,  the 
working  string  is  carried  over  the  two  cords  which 
form  the  leader,  around  under  it,  and  through  the 
loop  formed  by  itself  and  pulled  taut.  The  knots 
which  this  forms  naturally  arrange  themselves  spirally 
about  the  leader,  hence  the  name  corkscrew.  To  insure 
a  uniform  twist  the  string  is  passed  back  and  under 
the  leader  at  every  sixth  stitch. 

The  buttonhole  bar  is  made  by  a  buttonhole  stitch 
to  the  left  and  the  knots  are  kept  in  line  and  not  al- 
lowed to  fall  spirally. 

The  simple  Genoese  bar  is  made  by  single  button- 
hole stitches  alternating  to  right  and  left  and  is  made 
with  two  strings,  besides  those  forming  the  leader. 

The  double  Genoese  bar  consists  of  two  stitches 
worked  alternately  instead  of  one.  Variations  can  be 
made  by  using  3,  4,  5  or  6  alternately. 


a      b 


d 


Fig.  30.  Bars. — a,  Corkscrew;  b.  Buttonhole;  c,  Simple  Gen- 
oese; d.  Double  Genoese;  e,  Waved  or  Shell;  f,  Twisted  or 
Banister;    g,  Solomon's;    h,  Tatted. 


STEING  WOEK  95 

The  waved  or  shell  bar  is  made  by  making  6  button- 
holes to  the  right  or  left  and  pushing  them  closely  to- 
gether, naturally  the  cords  on  the  unknotted  side  will 
approximate  more  closely  and  the  bar  has  a  curve. 
The  next  six  stitches  are  taken  with  the  other  cord  on 
the  opposite  side  giving  the  waved  appearance. 

The  twisted  or  banister  bar  is  made  by  passing  the 
left  tying  cord  over  the  leader  and  under  the  opposite 
tying  cord.  This  is  then  passed  under  the  leader  and 
over  the  first  cord.  This  will  naturally  fall  into  a 
spiral. 

The  Solomon's  bar  consists  of  a  series  of  square 
knots  tied  on  a  leader  and  is  made  by  passing  the  left 
tying  cord  over  the  leader  and  under  the  opposite  tying 
cord,  which  is  then  passed  under  the  leader  and  over 
the  left  cord.  This  is  then  passed  under  the  leader  and 
over  the  opposite  cord,  which  is  passed  over  the  leader 
and  under  the  opposite  cord  and  pulled  taut.  The  next 
knot  is  tied  beginning  with  the  right  string. 

The  tatted  bar  is  made  with  a  single  cord  and  con- 
sists of  two  buttonhole  stitches  reversed  to  each  other. 
It  is  made  by  taking  the  knotting  cord  over  the  leader 
in  the  ordinary  way,  i.  e.,  over,  under,  and  up  through 
the  loop  and  pulled  taut.  JSText  take  the  cord  under, 
then  over  the  leader,  and  down  through  the  loop.  A 
double  tatted  bar  with  two  strings  worked  alternately 
is  more  effective. 

All  of  these  knots  and  bars  may  be  used  to  make 
attractive  and  useful  articles.  One  of  the  simplest  is 
a  watch  fob. 


96  OCCUPATION     THEEAPT 

Watch  Fob — To  make  this  take  four  pieces  of  ISTo. 
16  seine  twine  about  20  inches  long.  Double  two  of 
them  over  a  hook,  or  other  stationary  point,  to  form 
the  leader.  One  and  a  half  inches  down  begin  a 
Solomon's  bar,  which  make  for  1^' inches.  With  the 
strands  in  pairs  tie  a  wall  knot.  One  and  a  half  inches 
from  this  tie  a  manrope  knot  (wall  and  crown)  and 
cut  off  ends,  leaving  about  an  inch  to  form  a  sort  of 
tassel.  This  makes  a  useful  fob  which  can  be  washed 
or  thrown  away  when  soiled  as  it  is  inexpensive.  If 
seine  twine  is  not  available  any  form  of  string  can  be 
used.  Many  variations  can  be  made,  using  the  knots, 
braids,  and  bars  which  have  been  given.  A  four  fold 
flat  braid  with  the  cords  in  pairs  is  very  handsome. 

Watch  Guard. — I  once  saw  a  very  handsome  watch 
guard  made  from  ISTo.  32  seine  twine,  and  was  per- 
mitted to  take  the  following  measurements  from  it.  It 
was  beautifully  made,  had  been  frequently  washed, 
but  was  still  most  attractive.  Unfortunately  I  can- 
not give  the  length  of  twine  required  but  would 
imagine  that  the  eight  constituent  twines  should  be  at 
least  10  feet  long,  and  could  be  coiled  to  prevent 
tangling.  The  two  ends  were  fastened  to  a  ring  with 
a  snap  hook,  and  the  total  length  was  52  inches. 

8  strings,  10  feet  long.  Loop  1^  in.  outside;  3  in. 
of  loose  tying  f-  3^  in.  Solomon's  knots ;  2  crown  knots ; 
■g-  in.  loose  tying ;  2  crown  knots ;  -|  in.  loose  tying ; 

1  By  loose  tying  is  meant  that  the  cords,  divided  into  two 
groups,  are  tied  as  for  several  square  knots  or  grannies  with- 
out pulling  the  strings  taut. 


STRING  WOKK  97 

2  crown  knots;  3  in.  round  braiding;  2  crown  knots; 
f  in.  loose;  2  figure-of-eight  (flat)  knots  (made  with 
2  strands  of  4  each) ;  ^  in.  loose  tying;  2  crown  knots; 
2|  in.  Solomon's  knots;  2  crown  knots;  f  in.  loose 
tying;  2  crown  knots;  f  loose  tying,  1  crown  knot; 
S^  in.  spiral;  4  in.  loose  tying;  overhand  knot  (centre). 
Reverse  the  above  directions. 

Macrame  Bag. — A  beautiful  bag  can  be  made  with 
seine  twine,  although  the  same  may  be  made  with 
raffia  (Fig.  31)  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  lighter. 
It  forms  the  outer  covering  of  a  bag  made  of  colored 
material  and  is  useful  for  carrying  knitting,  etc. 

To  make  a  medium  sized  raffia  workbag,  first  take 
one  strand  of  raffia  and  on  this  piece  at  the  centre  tie 
five  strands  of  raffia  of  the  same  length  and  width  with 
a  slip  knot.  Then  tie  the  first  strand  of  raffia  used, 
bringing  the  cast  on  pieces  together  so  as  to  form  a 
small  centre  ring.  This  gives  six  double  strands  of 
raffia.  On  each  double  strand  tie  seven  more  strands 
(the  form  of  tie  being  a  Solomon's  knot).  This  is  the 
foundation  of  the  bag.  Sew  it  firmly  to  a  round  piece 
of  cardboard,  the  size  it  is  desired  to  make  the  bottom 
of  the  bag.  The  strands  tied  by  means  of  the  Solo- 
mon's knot  will  lie  half  on  one  side  of  the  double 
string,  or  leader,  and  half  on  the  other.  Take  the 
seven  strands  lying  on  one  side  of  the  leader  with  the 
seven  of  the  next  set  which  lie  next  to  it ;  this,  with  one 
from  each  leader  makes  sixteen  strands  of  raffia  with 
which  to  work. 

A  safe  plan  is  to  make  the  divisions  just  indicated 


98  OCCUPATION'    THERAPY 

all  the  way  around  the  circle,  tying  each  set  in  a  loose 
temporary  knot. 

Leave  out  the  two  strings  on  each  side  which  are 
farthest  from  the  centre — that  is,  one  of  the  double 
strands  and  the  last  of  those  tied  with  a  Solomon's 
knot.  The  next  strand  in  the  row  of  Solomon's  knots, 
or  sixth,  is  the  strand  with  which  the  next  tying  is 
done.  Gather  together  the  strands  from  both  sides  of 
the  remaining  five  Solomon's  knots,  lay  them  down  in 
order,  and  with  the  strands  from  the  sixth  make  a 
Solomon's  knot  around  them  as  a  leader.  This  forms 
one-half  of  a  diamond.  Take  each  of  these  strands 
and  tie  to  the  seventh  string  on  the  same  side,  using 
the  buttonhole  stitch  or  knot.  Slanting  the  same  string 
parallel  with  the  opposite  side  of  the  diamond,  on  this 
string  tie  in  order,  five  on  each  side,  with  the  button- 
hole knot,  the  number  forming  the  second  half  of  the 
side  of  the  diamond.  The  two  tie  strings  are  now  tied 
together  with  a  square  knot.  This  gives  seven  strands 
on  each  side  of  the  diamond.  On  the  eighth  strand 
(the  one  left  on  each  side)  tie  these  seven  in  the  same 
manner,  pulling  the  knots  up  close  to  the  first  row  of 
knots.  Tie  the  tie  strings  together  as  before.  This 
forms  one  complete  diamond.  The  rest  are  made  in 
the  same  manner.  When  all  sections  are  tied  it  should 
form  a  six-pointed  star. 

Spread  the  work  out  flat,  tie  all  strands  in  order  to 
a  ring  of  reed,  first  passing  it  completely  around  the 
ring,  then  tying  with  an  overhand  knot.  Another 
ring  may  be  placed  outside  of  this  in  the  same  way. 


Fig.  31.— Raffia  Bag. 


STRING  WORK  99 

If  the  bottom  is  to  be  quite  large,  another  row  of  dia- 
monds may  be  made  outside  of  the  first  row.  These 
will  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  first  row. 

Divide  the  strings  into  sets  of  fours,  using  the  two 
outer  ones  to  tie  a  Solomon's  knot  over  the  inner  ones. 
Do  this  all  the  way  around  the  ring  at  any  desired  dis- 
tance from  it.  Again  divide  in  fours,  using  two  from 
each  group,  and  tie  in  the  same  way  as  many  rows  as 
desired.  A  pretty  effect  and  a  better  bag  is  obtained 
by  making  these  rows  of  knots  close  to  the  ring  and 
gradually  increasing  the  distance  between  them. 

Work  out  until  the  size  it  is  desired  to  make  the 
bag  is  attained,  or  until  there  is  remaining  three  or 
four  inches  of  each  strand.  Gather  two  adjacent 
Solomon's  knots  and  with  a  new  strand  of  raffia  make 
a  Solomon's  bar  and  at  the  end  bend  back  to  form  a 
loop.  Do  this  all  around  the  bag,  thus  forming  the 
loops  for  the  drawstring.  The  latter  is  braided  flat  or 
round  as  preferred.  Two  are  used,  being  inserted  at 
opposite  sides  and  running  through  all  of  the  loops. 
Tie  ends  of  the  draw  string  with  an  overhand  knot  and 
fringe  out  to  form  a  tassel. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  the  instructions  which  have 
been  given  there  has  been  a  gradual  development  from 
simple  things  to  more  complicated,  and  by  combina- 
tions to  still  more  complicated.  It  is  so  that  we  learn 
and  develop  mentally,  and  it  is  this  plan  which  the 
nurse  should  pursue  in  occupying  her  patient.  She 
may  have  to  stop  for  a  long  time  at  a  certain  stage, 
but  this  should  not  discourage  her.     Any  occupation 


100  OCCUPATION     THEKAPY 

which  begins  with  simple  things  and  becomes  more 
complicated  is  what  I  call  a  developing  occupation 
and  is  especially  valuable  for  use  with  mental  cases. 

There  are  many  more  things  which  can  be  done  with 
string  and  a  knowledge  of  which  the  nurse  must  ac- 
quire from  other  sources.  The  most  valuable  things 
are  netting,  tatting,  crocheting  and  knitting.  The 
last  three  are  especially  valuable  because  they  usually 
require  counting  and  close  attention.  For  the  same 
reason  they  may  be  fatiguing.  They  are  all  much 
more  easily  acquired  under  a  teacher  than  from  de- 
scriptions, but  the  following  references  are  given  in 
case  a  teacher  is  not  possible. 

I^Tetting. — Hasluck,  p.  125.     Walker,  p.  116. 

Tatting. — The  l^ew  Heavy  Thread  Tatting,  Wonv- 
ans  Home  Companion^  May,  1913. 

Knitting. — Meischer's  Manual. 

Crocheting. — Fleischer's  Manual. 

Hairpin  Crocheting. — Walker,  p.  240. 

Hair-pin  crocheting  is  recommended  as  a  simple  form 
of  work  which  can  be  done  by  bed  patients  or  those 
who  are  mentally  incapable  of  doing  the  more  compli- 
cated crocheting  where  counting  is  necessary.  The  prod- 
uct is  useful  and  can  be  joined  together  to  form  many 
articles,  or  is  used  as  an  edging. 


WEAVING. 

As  one  studies  about  weaving  one  learns  that  the 
word  loom  may  indicate  a  great  many  different  objects, 
and  probably  the  broadest  meaning  is,  any  object 
which  holds  threads  in  such  a  way  that  other  threads 
may  be  woven  about  them  so  as  to  form  a  fabric.  The 
fixed  threads  form  the  warp  and  the  other  threads  the 
woof. 

In  playground  work  weaving  on  a  pasteboard  loom 
has  been  used  to  make  doll's  hammocks  from  string. 
A  loom  of  wood  and  wire  is  now  supplied  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  pasteboard  is  almost  as  satisfactory.  To 
make  a  hammock  take  a  piece  of  pasteboard  the  size 
that  it  is  desired  to  make  the  body  of  the  hammock 
and  cut  notches  along  each  end  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart.  The  usual  size  is  about  8  by  12  inches.  Take 
two  rings  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  or 
make  them  from  twisted  wire,  reed,  or  twigs,  and 
fasten  these  to  the  centre  of  the  pasteboard  by  tying. 
Fasten  the  end  of  the  warp  to  one  ring,  pass  it  over 
the  end  notch  to  the  corresponding  notch  on  the  oppo- 
site end  through  the  second  ring,  then  back  to  the  next 
notch,  to  the  corresponding  notch  on  the  opposite  end, 
through  the  first  ring,  keeping  this  up  until  one  side 
of  the  pasteboard  is  covered  with  strings  lying  parallel, 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  Strings  which  are  cut  a 
little  longer  than  the  hammock  is  wide  are  then  woven 

101 


102  OCCUPATION   THEEAPY 

on  the  warp,  it  being  possible  by  varying  tbe  color  and. 
weave  to  make  many  pleasing  patterns.  If  it  is  de- 
sired that  the  hammock  should  not  have  a  fringe,  the 
woof  is  a  continuous  cord.  The  weaving  can  be  done 
more  easily  and  rapidly  if  the  woof  is  threaded  on  a 
needle  (Fig.  -32).  If  the  ends  of  the  pasteboard,  are 
curved  convexly  the  hammock  will  have  a  sag  and.  the 
doll  will  not  be  so  apt  to  fall  out.  When  finished  the 
string  holding  the  rings  is  cut  and  the  hammock  slipped 
off  the  pasteboard.  While  simple,  the  work  is  inter- 
esting and  the  weaving  is  excellent  training  for  the  at- 
tention. If  the  hammock  is  made  for  some  particular 
little  girl's  doll  the  patient  will  naturally  take  more  in- 
terest in  the  task. 

This  form  of  weaving  can  be  adapted  to  make  any 
woven  article  that  we  wish.  For  example,  suppose 
we  wish  to  make  a  pointed  cap,  such  as  used  to  be 
known  as  a  toboggan  cap,  from  yarn  or  worsted.  We 
will  make  this  fifteen  inches  long,  so  tie  a  pencil  to  a 
piece  of  string  and  fifteen  inches  from  it  tie  an  over- 
hand knot  and  thrust  through  it  a  pin,  which  place 
in  the  corner  of  a  piece  of  pasteboard  and  with  the 
pencil  draw  from  one  edge  a  curve.  ISText  measure 
around  your  own  or  some  other  convenient  head  and 
mark  half  this  distance  on  the  curve  drawn.  From 
this  point  draw  a  straight  line  to  the  corner  where 
the  pin  is  attached.  Cut  off  this  corner  about  half  an 
inch  and  make  a  broad  notch.  Cut  out  the  pasteboard 
and  along  the  curved  edge  make  a  series  of  notches. 
These  should  be  a  half  inch  apart  for  heavy  yarn  and 


Fig.  32. — Wooden  needles  for  weaving.    Above  is  the  needle 
for  simple  weaving;   below  is  a  netting  needle. 


WEAVING  103 

less  for  lighter  ones,  those  at  the  two  edges  being  half 
the  distance  from  the  edge  that  they  are  apart.  Fasten 
the  yarn  about  the  first  right  hand  point  of  pasteboard 
which  lies  beween  it  and  the  next  notch,  so  that  the 
long  end  is  directly  over  the  first  notch,  then  wind  the 
yarn  to  the  notch  on  top  and  down  the  opposite  side  to 
the  first  right  hand  notch  on  the  other  side.  Pass  the 
yarn  under  the  point  of  pasteboard  to  the  next  right 
hand  notch,  over  the  point,  down  the  other  side  to  the 
next  right  hand  notch  on  that  side,  around  the  point 
to  the  next  notch,  and  so  back  and  forth  until  all  of 
the  notches  have  been  filled  and  the  warp  lies  evenly 
spaced  on  the  two  sides.  The  weaving  is  then  done 
around  the  loom  with  a  continuous  thread,  interrupted 
to  put  in  the  pattern  desired.  When  finished  the  paste- 
board points  are  broken  off  and  the  form  slipped  out. 
The  cap  is  reversed  and  finished  with  a  cord  and  tas- 
sel. If  made  shorter,  the  upper  end  must  be  broad  and 
notched  with  the  same  number  as  below.  This  is 
drawn  together  with  a  drawing  string.  These  looms, 
already  prepared,  with  directions  and  materials,  may 
be  procured  from  the  school  supply  stores. 

The  number  of  threads  in  the  warp  must  be  uneven, 
which  is  easily  managed  for  the  hammock,  but  is  more 
difficult  for  the  cap.  Probably  the  simplest  plan  is  to 
run  an  extra  thread  to  one  of  the  notches,  but  this  has 
the  disadvantage  of  making  an  uneven  place  in  the 
weaving.  The  diffilculty  may  be  overcome  by  having 
the  notch  on  one  side  at  the  same  distance  from  the 
edge  as  the  distance  between  notches,  and  running  the 


104  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

extra  thread  along  the  edge  where  it  may  be  secured 
with  a  pin. 

The  next  development  as  a  loom  is  a  wooden  frame 
with  notches  or  brads  in  the  end  pieces  over  which  the 
warp  is  strung.  There  are  a  number  of  different  forms 
of  this  loom  on  the  market,  among  them  the  Faribault, 
Todd,  Tyndall  and  others.^ 

There  are  also  a  number  of  hand  looms  (a  hand  loom 
is  any  in  which  the  shuttle  is  moved  by  hand)  on 
which  runners,  rugs,  scarfs,  curtains,  or  other  ^^seful 
and  beautiful  articles  may  be  woven.  Work  on  these 
looms  should  only  be  u.ndertaken  after  some  instruc- 
tion has  been  received,  although  almost  anyone  with  a 
slight  knowledge  of  weaving  can  learn  how  to  work 
one  of  these  looms  from  a  book  of  instructions.^ 

Weaving  is  one  of  the  best  occupations  there  is, 
and  especially  on  one  of  these  larger  looms,  for  the  con- 
valescent or  the  chronic  case  in  whom  there  is  little 
mental  reduction.  In  its  higher  forms  it  is  a  distinct 
craft  and  requires  skill  and  good  taste  in  the  mechan- 
ical part  of  the  work  and  in  the  selection  of  design, 
color,  etc.  It  is  quite  proper  that  it  be  urged  as  a 
hobby  for  one  who  shows  a  liking  for  it. 

The  Indians  wove  beautiful  blankets  on  a  very  crude 
loom,  and  most  beautiful  rugs  are  made  by  Persians 

1  Todd,  Mattie  Phipps.  Hand  loom  weaving.  New  York 
and  Chicago,  Rand,  NcNally  &  Co. 

2  Hooper,  Luther.  Hand  loom  weaving,  plain  and  orna- 
mental. Artistic  crafts  series  of  technical  handbooks.  New 
York,  Macmillan  Co. 


WEAVING  105 

and  others  on  a  similar  one.  A  pole  is  suspended  and 
carries  the  warp  with  another  pole  at  the  bottom,  which 
is  weighted  to  stretch  the  warp.  Ordinary  yarn  or 
worsted  will  make  beautiful  Indian  blankets  when 
closely  woven,  and  this  can  be  done  on  a  large  wooden 
frame. 

Weaving  on  frames  such  as  are  mentioned  above  can 
be  done  more  easily  with  a  needle  (Fig.  32)  about 
seven  or  more  inches  long  made  of  wood,  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  thick,  to  which  the  thread  is  attached  by 
running  through  one  or  two  eyes  in  the  blunt  end. 
The  thread  may  be  almost  any  form  of  string  or  rags. 
Some  beautiful  rag  rugs  are  made  by  twisting  two 
strands  of  different  colors  together  before  weaving 
them.  The  preparation  of  these  rags  is  a  good  occu- 
pation itself. 

There  has  recently  been  revived  an  old  way  of  mak- 
ing tidies  (which  I  understand  no  longer  appear  in 
our  best  households)  or  mats  to  be  placed  on  polished 
tables  to  prevent  their  being  marred  by  hot  dishes. 
Frames  of  thin  wood  on  which  to  make  these  may  be 
purchased  with  notches  on  the  four  sides  to  accommo- 
date the  string,  or  a  frame  can  be  made  of  the  size 
desired  and  nails  driven  in  the  sides  an  inch  apart, 
about  which  the  string  is  wound.  Usually  a  soft  white 
knitting  cotton  is  used  and  is  fastened  at  one  nail, 
brought  across  the  frame  and  around  the  opposite  nail 
and  the  next,  again  across  the  frame  until  all  of  the 
nails  have  been  used  and  we  have  a  series  of  parallel 
cords  stretching  across  the  frame,  which  is  turned  and 


106  OCCUPATION"    THERAPY 

another  series  of  cords  are  wound  on  at  right  angles  to 
the  first.  This  winding  is  continued  until  the  rows  of 
cords  are  about  a  half  inch  thick.  They  are  then  fas- 
tened together  by  means  of  a  cord  which  may  be  run 
diagonally  across  the  open  square  or  run  parallel  with 
the  intersecting  cords.  The  diagonal  tying  is  done 
twice  and  makes  the  mat  stronger.  A  netting  needle 
(Fig.  32)  makes  the  operation  much  easier,  and  is 
usually  of  one-eighth  wood  about  six  inches  long,  one- 
half  wide,  with  a  broad  notch  at  one  end  and  a  blunt 
point  at  the  other.  Back  of  this  blunt  point  about  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  the  wood  is  cut  away  for  about  an 
inch  and  a  half,  leaving  a  tongue  in  the  centre.  The 
cord  is  held  on  the  needle,  brought  around  the  tongue 
and  down  the  same  side,  so  holding  the  end  under  it, 
over  the  broad  notch,  up  the  other  side,  around  the 
tongue,  down  again  over  the  notch,  and  so  on,  not 
crossing  itself,  until  the  needle  holds  all  of  the  cord 
which  it  will  accommodate.  By  its  use  we  have  the 
cord  coiled,  as  it  were.  In  tying  the  intersections  of 
the  mat  the  free  end  is  tied  about  the  first  intersection 
with  a  square  knot,  the  needle  is  passed  over  the  next 
intersection,  up  through  the  space  towards  the  knot  last 
tied,  over  and  under  itself,  making  an  overhand  knot, 
and  pulled  taut.  Cord  is  uncoiled  from  the  needle  as 
needed.  When  all  intersections  are  tied  the  cords  are 
cut  from  the  nails,  trimmed  evenly  and  our  mat  is 
finished.  If  a  frame  is  used  without  nails  the  cord  is 
wound  over  and  over  it  and  after  tying  is  cut  at  the 
edges  to  take  off  the  frame. 


WEAVING  107 

The  diagonal  tying  is  used  twice  on  a  tidy,  the  mat 
turned  over  and  half  of  the  strings  are  cut  through 
midway  between  the  intersections.  With  the  handle 
of  the  scissors  passed  to  and  fro  over  these  ends,  they 
are  fluffed  out  and  make  a  rather  pretty  effect. 

RUG  MAKING. 

A  group  of  patients  and  myself  once  had  a  good  deal 
of  pleasure  in  making  two  rugs  in  the  Persian  manner 
from  some  carpet  yarn  which  we  had  acquired  by  do- 
nation. The  warp  of  white  string  was  stretched  on  a 
frame,  then  a  row  of  short  pieces  of  yarn  (about  3 
inches  long)  were  tied  to  the  strings  by  doubling  them 
over  a  string  and  passing  the  left  end  over  the  string, 
under  the  next  to  the  right  and  out,  the  two  ends  form- 
ing the  pile  which  was  trimmed  smooth  when  finished. 
Various  designs  were  made  during  the  weaving.  Be- 
tween each  row  of  tied  yarn  a  string  like  the  warp  was 
woven  to  give  strength  to  the  rug.  A  similar  rug 
could  be  made  with  waste  yarn  or  worsted.  Inciden- 
tally a  study  of  oriental  rugs  might  be  made  to  add 
interest  to  the  occupation.^ 

Besides  the  rugs  which  are  woven  on  a  loom,  there 
are  a  number  of  other  methods.  First,  the  old-fash- 
ioned braided  rug,  which  may  be  made  of  any  kind  of 
rags  made  into  braid,  and  coiled  round  or  oval,  the 

1  Lewis,  Dr.  G.  Griffin.  The  Mystery  of  the  Oriental  Rug. 
Phila.,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  $1.50. 

Lewis,  Dr.  G.  Griffin.  The  Practical  Book  of  Oriental 
Rugs.     Same.     $5.25. 


108  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

edges  being  stitched  together.  The  rags  are  cut  into 
inch  strips,  or  an  inch  and  a  half  for  a  heavier  rug, 
sewed  strongly  with  linen  thread,  hut  not  into  a  hard 
spot.  A  small  amount  is  braided  at  a  time,  the  work 
being  held  in  the  lap,  care  being  taken  to  make  the 
sides  of  the  braid  smooth  and  to  keep  the  flat  part  of 
the  braid  always  on  top.  The  rug  is  sewed  on  the 
wrong  side  with  waxed,  heavy  linen  thread.  "When 
made  of  cotton  these  rugs  can  be  washed. 

Another  form  is  the  hooked  rug  which,  when  made 
by  an  expert,  may  be  very  artistic.  This  subject  has 
been  treated  so  entertainingly  and  thoroughly  by  Helen 
E.  Albee^  that  the  reader  is  referred  to  her  little  book, 
as  justice  to  the  subject  cannot  be  done  here.  The 
work  requires  a  good  deal  of  patience  and  is  probably 
a  better  form  of  occupation  for  those  patients  in  whom 
mental  reduction  has  occurred,  such  as  advanced  de- 
mentia praecox,  imbecility,  or  senility,  than  for  those 
who  are  suffering  from  a  functional  psychosis.  For 
the  latter  more  varied  occupations  are  better. 

Rugs  may  also  be  knitted  or  crocheted  with  coarse 
needles  from  narrow  rags.  A  silk  portiere  was  knitted 
from  the  colored  selvage  of  silks. 

lAlbee,  Helen  R.  Abnakee  Rugs.  3  Edition,  Cambridge, 
1909.  The  Riverside  Press.  The  first  edition  was  published 
in  1903.    Mrs.  Albee's  address  is  Silver  Lake,  N.  H. 

Miller,  Katharine  E.  Abnakee  Rugmaking  as  a  Village  In- 
dustry.    The  House  Beautiful,   X,   287,   October,   1901. 


v:EA.yi:sQ  109 

LACE  WEAVING. 

A  special  loom  for  making  lace  can  be  purchased 
for  about  five  dollars,  and  has  proved  an  interesting 
occupation  in  several  instances.  It  is  not  especially 
difficult. 


PAPERWORK. 

Like  string,  paper  is  a  material  tliat  is  usually  avail- 
able; therefore,  a  knowledge  of  its  possibilities  is 
important.  Paper  is  defined  as  a  substance  consisting 
essentially  of  cellulose  fibres  interwoven  into  a  com- 
pact web,  made  by  cbemical  and  mechanical  processes 
from  rags,  straw,  wood,  bark,  and  other  fibrous  ma- 
terial into  thin  sheets  or  strips.  It  is  used  as  a  medium 
for  writing,  printing,  and  wrapping,  although  various 
special  uses  have  been  devised,  such  as  building,  pack- 
ing, etc.  There  are  five  processes  in  its  manufacture: 
(1)  cleansing,  (2)  boiling,  (3)  washing,  (4)  bleach- 
ing, (5)  beating.  This  gives  a  pulp,  which  is  fed  into 
machines,  whence  it  emerges  as  the  finished  product 
which  we  all  know. 

Probably  the  first  paper  was  used  by  the  Chinese 
in  the  second  century  B.  C.  In  751  A.  D.  some 
Chinese  paper  makers  were  captured  by  the  Arabs,  and 
introduced  its  manufacture.  From  this  time  a  knowl- 
edge of  its  manufacture  and  use  rapidly  spread.  It 
seems  impossible  for  us  to  imagine  how  we  could  get 
along  without  it  in  our  daily  life.  Its  commonness 
and  cheapness  makes  us  probably  esteem  it  less  than 
we  should.  The  nurse  can  find  much  material  that 
will  be  of  use  in  waste  paper  baskets  or  the  wrappers 
of  bundles. 

110 


PAPER   WORK  111 


PAPER  FOLDING. 


These  forms  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the 
puzzles  and  catches — that  is,  to  attract  the  patient's 
attention  and  interest.     Some,  however,  are  useful. 

Kindergartners,  I  understand,  begin  the  paper  work 
with  a  five-inch  square  of  moderately  heavy  colored 
paper,  and  with  this  develop  many  forms.  That  color 
is  an  additional  attraction  is  undoubted,  and  in  all  of 
our  work,  whenever  possible,  we  should  use  this  to 
make  occupation  attractive  to  our  patients.  Aside 
from  this  there  are  great  possibilities  in  educating  in 
color  harmonies,  etc.  The  object  of  teaching  folding 
is  to  teach  accuracy  of  hand  and  eye. 

The  first  and  simplest  form  is  folding  the  sheet  in 
half,  forming  what  the  child  calls  a  hooh.  Another 
fold  makes  it  a  handkerchief.  Folding  twice  more 
and  opening  it  up  makes  what  the  child  calls  a  win- 
dow-pane or  a  checkerboard.  If  the  "book"  is  stood 
on  the  two  edges  parallel  to  the  fold,  we  have  a  sol- 
dier's tent.  If  the  sheet  is  folded  diagonally  we  have 
a  shawl.  If  the  checkerboard  is  folded  twice  diag- 
onally for  guide  lines  and  the  sides  turned  up,  we  have 
a  box  or  tray.  Folding  our  sheet  twice  diagonally 
marks  the  centre  of  the  sheet  and  if,  after  flattening 
it  out,  we  bring  each  corner  to  the  centre  and  fold, 
then  turn  each  corner  back  to  the  middle  of  the  edge 
and  fold,  we  have  a  picture-frame.  These  and  many 
other  simple  forms  may  be  developed  before  the  pa- 
tient has  his  interest  aroused. 


112  OCCUPATION    THEKAPY 

Reference  to  kindergarten  books  will  add  mucli  in- 
teresting information. 

A  useful  paper  form  is  the  cup,  which  is  made  from 
a  square,  but  preferably  larger  than  five  inches,  as  the 
latter  size  results  in  a  very  small  cup.  First  fold  the 
square  diagonally.  ISText  place  the  corners  on  the  di- 
agonal at  a  midpoint  on  the  opposite  sides  and  fold. 
This  results  in  a  pentagon.  Turn  down  one  right 
angled  corner  and  tuck  into  the  outer  fold,  and  we 
have  a  serviceable  cup  with  a  handle. 

A  sheet  of  paper  can  be  folded  into  an  envelope 
form.  The  two  ends  are  folded  down  not  quite  a  quar- 
ter. Fold  down  each  corner.  Fold  each  side  down  not 
quite  one-third,  and  we  have  quite  a  respectable  look- 
ing envelope. 

A  fish's  mouth  may  be  amusing  to  anyone.  It  is 
best  made  from  paper  twice  as  long  as  wide.  This 
is  folded  once  each  way  to  quarter  size.  Open  up  and 
fold  down  the  corners.  From  where  the  corners  meet 
fold  a  diagonal  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  middle 
on  each  side.  Fold  across  the  middle  of  the  long  axis 
towards  the  flat  side.  Fold  the  turned-in  corners  to- 
gether and,  holding  the  two  points  together,  force  in 
the  middle  towards  them.  The  diagonal  folds  will  al- 
low the  form  to  flatten,  and  upon  them  depends  the 
success  of  the  form.  A  slight  movement  will  make  a 
resemblance  to  the  gaping  motion  of  a  fish's  mouth, 
and  an  eye  drawn  in  proper  position  will  increase  the 
resemblance. 

There   is   a  very  interesting  form  folded  from   a 


PAPER   WOEK  113 

square  wliicli  by  a  turn  or  two  can  cliange  from  a 
rather  geometrically  formed  chicken  into  a  sail-hoat, 
or  vice  versa.  A  form  such  as  this  may  serve  to  excite 
the  patient's  interest  because  it  brings  about  the  de- 
sire to  see  if  he  can  do  such  as  simple  thing  as  make 
this  change.  From  this  he  may  be  induced  to  make 
other  forms.  It  is  interesting  as  being  a  very  old  form, 
and  I  have  been  told  that  a  certain  old  gentleman  in 
Southern  Maryland  was  in  the  habit  of  folding  his 
offering  to  the  contribution  plate  in  this  way. 

FOLDING  AND  CUTTING. 
Five  Pointed  Star. 

Many  uses  will  naturally  suggest  themselves  for  this, 
chiefly  of  ornament.  Fold  the  paper  once.  Fold  at 
the  centre  of  the  folded  edge  at  an  angle  to  it,  leaving 
a  portion  uncovered,  the  angle  of  which  is  one-half  of 
that  of  the  part  folded  over.  It  will  probably  take  a 
little  practice  to  do  this,  so  that  it  is  best  to  use  a  piece 
of  waste  paper  until  we  have  made  our  pattern.  The 
uncovered  portion  is  folded  over  the  other  part,  half 
covering  it.  Fold  this  in  half.  With  scissors  cut  off 
the  irregular  ends.  Dependent  on  the  angle  at  which 
this  is  done  will  be  the  points  of  our  star,  which  we 
have  when  the  paper  is  unfolded.  It  is  the  trick  which 
Betsey  Ross  showed  General  Washington  and  which 
caused  the  stars  in  the  American  flag  to  be  five  pointed. 


114  OCCUPATIONAL  THEEAPY 

CUT  OUT  DOLLS,  ETC. 

Probably  most  of  us  were  delighted  in  cbildbood 
with  the  string  of  paper  dolls  which  some  kind  relative 
made  for  ns,  all  holding  hands.  A  piece  of  paper  is 
folded  over  in  one  direction  several  times  to  the  proper 
size,  and  from  the  central  fold  as  a  midline  we  cut 
with  scissors  as  artistically  as  we  are  able,  a  half  doll 
with  arm  outstretched,  extending  to  the  other  folded 
edges  which  are  not  cut  through.  Unfolding  gives  us 
a  number  of  dolls  in  line.  A  variation  is  to  fold  our 
paper  to  a  point  and  cut  in  the  same  way.  This  gives 
us  a  ring  of  dolls  holding  hands.  The  possibilities  of 
this  work  are  great.  Some  persons  and  some  children 
are  able  to  cut  out  designs  in  this  way  much  better 
than  they  can  draw.  One  summer  afternoon  I  kept  a 
group  of  children  quiet,  so  that  their  mother  might 
have  a  nap,  by  reading  one  of  the  Oz  books,  after 
which  I  cut  out  the  characters  in  the  above  way,  each 
child  getting  one  after  they  were  cut  apart.  Any 
symmetrical  desigii  can  be  made  in  this  fashion. 

PAPER  CUTTING. 

Many  children  delight  to  cut  out  figures  of  ani- 
mals, etc.,  with  scissors,  and  a  patient  may  enjoy  a 
further  development  of  this.  Very  effective  pictures 
can  be  made  very  simply,  although  they  must  be 
classed  as  impressionistic.  A  dark  green  fir  tree  on  a 
white  ground  gives  us  the  impression  of  a  tree  on  a 
hill  covered  with  snow.     One  of  my  nurses  made  an 


PAPER   WOEK  115 

interesting  series  of  pictures  showing  a  tree  on  a  hill 
during  the  four  seasons.  It  was  made  from  papers 
cut  from  a  paper  sample  book,  four  pieces  comprising 
each  picture,  one  for  the  ground,  another  for  the  skj, 
a  third  for  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  the  fourth  for  the 
foliage.  Much  more  elaborate  pictures  can  be  made 
by  having  a  picture  postcard  model  and  reproducing  on 
a  larger  scale  with  colored  paper.  Sometimes  crepe 
paper  is  used  because  it  is  more  conveniently  procured 
in  necessary  shades  and  gives  a  better  effect.  Usually 
a  pale  blue  paper  covers  the  upper  part  of  the  founda- 
tion paper  or  pasteboard,  and  green  for  grass,  or  any 
other  necessary  color,  on  the  lower  part.  On  these  are 
pasted  houses,  animals,  people,  etc.,  in  proper  relation. 
Much  can  be  taught  in  making  one  of  these  pictures. 
Perspective,  color  harmony,  form,  etc.,  as  well  as  the 
skill  in  wielding  the  scissors,  and  the  ingenuity  in  ac- 
quiring and  using  the  colored  paper.  A  portion  of  a 
discarded  and  torn  colored  lithograph  may  supply  one 
shade,  and  an  old  envelope  another.  Pencil  and  color 
box  are  not  needed,  and  indeed,  should  not  be  used  for 
this  work.  Many  other  forms  of  this  work  will  sug- 
gest themselves.  Making  chains  or  other  ornaments 
for  the  Chistmas  tree.  Motifs  for  the  decoration  of 
a  box  or  room,  May  baskets,  candy  boxes,  etc.,  but 
probably  one  of  the  best  ways  to  use  paper  cutting  is 
to  illustrate  a  story,  nursery  rhyme,  etc.  If  it  is  un- 
desirable to  use  scissors,  the  objects  may  be  made  by 
tearing  off  small  pieces.  After  a  short  time  one  can 
become  quite  skilful  in  this. 


116  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

A  further  elaboration  of  this  work  is  making  paste- 
board models  of  houses,  etc.,  which  may  be  grouped  to 
form  villages,  farms,  etc.  The  method  of  construct- 
ing these  is  very  simple.  As  many  sides  of  our  house 
as  possible  are  drawn  on  the  pasteboard,  and  after  cut- 
ting out  they  are  pasted  together  by  means  of  a  narrow 
edge,  which  is  left  beyond  the  outline  for  this  purpose. 
Windows,  etc.,  must  be  drawn,  and  in  this  work  the 
use  of  pencil  and  color  box  is  to  be  encouraged. 

Another  development  is  the  construction  of  doll's 
furniture  or  boxes,  which  may  be  covered  with  cre- 
tonne. 

CREPE  PAPER  WORK. 

There  are  great  possibilities  in  this  work  and  many 
beautiful  things  can  be  made.  The  softness  of  the  ma- 
terial makes  it  possible  to  make  flowers  which  are  very 
natural.  The  Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.  publishes 
a  little  book  called  Art  and  Decoration  in  Dennison 
Paper,  Crepe  and  Tissue,  which  is  full  of  directions 
of  how  to  make  flowers,  lamp  shades,  etc.,  and  the 
monthlies  often  print  articles  on  various  uses  of  it. 
Crepe  paper  rope  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  reed  in 
weaving  baskets,  and  is  also  used  to  decorate  or  cover 
pasteboard  forms  which  are  used  as  jardinieres,  waste 
baskets,  etc.  A  coating  of  shellac  or  varnish  makes  the 
paper  less  likely  to  be  soiled  or  spoiled  by  wetting. 
Shellac  comes  in  several  colors,  and  according  to  which 
is  used  will  be  the  resulting  shade.  This  will  always 
be  darker  than  that  of  the  paper  used. 

Crepe  paper  rope  can  be  bought  in  various  sizes, 


PAPEK  WORK  117 

but  can  be  made  by  cutting  a  strip  of  paper  tbe  entire 
lengtb  of  tbe  roll  and  fastening  one  end  to  tbe  small 
■wbeel  of  a  sewing  machine,  one  person  holding  the  free 
end  while  another  works  the  treadle,  the  paper  being 
stretched  to  its  full  capacity.  The  strips  can  also  be 
made  by  hand.  After  two  have  been  made  they  are 
twisted  together  in  the  opposite  direction.  Two  ten 
inch  strips,  or  half  the  width  of  the  roll,  will  make  a 
rope  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter. 

To  make  baskets,  wires  are  covered  with  crepe  paper 
and  are  used  as  spokes  (see  Basketry).  Rope  of  -|  or 
^  inch  is  used  as  the  weaver. 

WALL  PAPER. 

Wall  paper  may  be  used  in  many  ways.  Besides 
buying  it  by  the  roll  a  sample  book  can  often  be  ac- 
quired from  a  dealer  at  the  close  of  the  season  and  will 
be  found  to  contain  many  possibilities. 
.  Paste — The  following  makes  an  excellent  paste: 
Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  alum  in  a  quart  of  hot  water. 
When  cold  stir  in  flour  the  consistency  of  thick  cream, 
carefully  beating  up  all  the  lumps.  Stir  in  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  resin.  Pour  on  the  mixture  a 
tea  cup  of  boiling  water,  stirring  well.  Cover  and 
keep  in  a  cool  place.  It  can  be  kept  for  a  long  time  if 
the  jars  in  which  it  is  placed  are  tightly  sealed  while 
the  paste  is  hot.  Another  very  good  way  is  to  pour 
melted  paraffin  on  top  of  the  paste  after  it  has  hard- 
ened.    Wlien  needed  for  use  take  a  portion  and  soften 


°  OCCUPATIOIT    THEEAPT 


it  in  warm  water.     A  few  drops  of  oil  of  cloves  or 
wmtergreen  will  give  a  pleasant  odor. 

In  pasting  as  in  painting  remember  that  it  is  the 
end  of  the  bristle  brush  which  is  most  effective  in 
spreading  the  paste  and  not  the  sides 


WOOD  WORK. 

There  is  so  much  that  may  be  done  with  wood  that 
any  selection  would  necessitate  more  space  than  can 
well  be  given  to  it  here.  In  the  first  place  the  patient 
must  be  capable  of  being  trusted  with  sharp  tools — 
that  is,  he  must  not  be  actively  suicidal,  and  while 
every  case  of  depression  is  potentially  suicidal,  it  has 
been  found  that  a  great  many  of  them  can  be  trusted 
to  work  with  sharp  tools.  Apparently  the  interest  in 
the  work  causes  at  least  a  temporary  subsidence  of 
these  ideas.  The  equipment  for  wood  working  may 
vary  very  much,  from  a  sloyd  knife  costing  15  cents  to 
a  bench  and  full  equipment  costing  nearly  one  hun- 
dred dollars.  Many  serviceable  and  attractive  articles 
may  be  made  with  the  knife.  [N'early  a  century  ago 
Utica  State  Hospital  had  a  whittling  shop,  where  toys 
and  other  products  of  wood  were  made.  Knife  work 
is  taught  in  our  schools  as  a  part  of  manual  training, 
and  several  books  have  been  written  giving  instruc- 
tion in  this  branch.^  In  all  of  this  work  it  is  recom- 
mended that  a  working  drawing  be  made  before  the 

1  Richardson.  Elementary  Knife  Work,  25  cents.  Ad- 
vanced Knife  Work^  25  cents. 

Hammel,  Wm.  C.  A.  Elementary  Knife  Work.  Advanced 
Knife  Work.     Richmond,  1903,  B.  F.  Johnson  Publishing  Co. 

Larson.     Elementary  Sloyd  and  Whittling,  75  cents. 

Goss,  W.  F.  M.  Bench  Work  in  Wood.  Ginn  &  Co.,  1887, 
1905. 

119 


120  OCCUPATION    THEKAPY 

whittling  is  begun.  If  the  patient  does  not  care  to 
make  such  a  drawing  it  is  proper  to  allow  him  to  begin 
on  the  whittling  which  his  fancy  may  dictate  and  later 
on  to  show  him  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  do- 
ing the  work  properly.  Canes  and  paper  cutters  can 
be  made  from  sticks  gathered  during  a  walk  through 
the  woods.  Plant  labels,  paper  cutters,  toys,  wind  toys, 
and  a  number  of  other  things  may  be  made  from  dis- 
carded boxes  or  other  soft  wood.  The  cleanness  of 
wood  and  its  delicate  odor  makes  it  a  delightful  ma- 
terial with  which  to  work.  Building  paper  board,  such 
as  Beaver  board,  is  also  an  excellent  material  for  boxes, 
doll  houses,  etc.,  and  can  often  be  combined  with  wood 
to  make  most  attractive  pieces  of  furniture.  The 
Beaver  Co.  at  one  time  published  a  pamphlet  giving 
directions  for  the  manufacture  of  such  articles,  but  it 
has  not  been  reprinted  since  the  original  edition  was 
exhausted. 

A  coping  saw  is  a  bracket  saw  which  can  be  bought 
with  12  blades  for  25  cents  at  any  hardware  store. 
With  this  any  fret  sawing  may  be  done.^  although  a 
foot  power  saw  is  more  easily  worked.  Both  of  these 
forms  are  excellent  for  training  concentration  of  at- 
tention, the  foot  power  saw  especially,  as  too  much 
pressure,  or  a  loose  holding  of  the  wood,  causes  a  break- 
ing of  the  saw  blade,  which  acts  as  an  alarm  and 
wakens  the  patient  from  his  wool  gathering. 

A  fret  or  scroll  saw  is  especially  valuable  for  making 

1  Johnson  Ben  W.  Coping  Saw  Work.  Peoria,  Manual  Arts 
Press   (20  cents). 


WOOD  WOEK  121 

puzzle  pictures,  and  is  probably  used  more  for  this 
purpose  than  any  other.  Various  equipments  may  be 
purchased  and  a  weekly  entitled  Hobbies  is  published 
in  England  specializing  on  this  subject,  although  in  it 
there  are  other  matters  of  value. 

The  great  objection  to  most  designs  which  are  made 
for  fret  sawing  is  that  they  are  inartistic,  and  the  ar- 
ticles made  are  dust  catchers  and  have  pre-eminently 
that  quality  which  is  best  described  as  "ginger-bready." 
One  should  learn  to  know  its  use. 

It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  value  of  wood 
working  as  a  means  of  education,  but  unless  the  nurse 
has  had  special  training  in  this  branch  there  are  many 
other  forms  of  occupation  which  she  can  use  better. 
If  she  has  had  manual  training  she  will  be  at  no  loss 
for  objects  to  make,  and  can  construct  for  herself  a  bed 
tray.  If  her  patient  is  better  skilled  than  she  perhaps 
he  can  be  induced  to  make  it  for  her  as  a  mark  of  his 
esteem.  Even  if  she  finds  it  necessary  to  employ  the 
services  of  a  carpenter  she  will  find  this  tray  a  great 
convenience  to  her  bed  patient.  Some  prefer  that  it 
should  have  a  rim  about  three  sides  of  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  height,  but  this  adds  to  the  thickness  in 
packing  and  is  not  necessary. 

The  bed  table  can  be  made  in  a  great  variety  of 
sizes.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  33  was  intended  for  a  spe- 
cial purpose  and  is  30  inches  long  by  12  inches  wide. 
A  more  convenient  size  would  be  one  that  could  be 
carried  in  a  suitcase,  or  about  14  x  22  inches.  The 
simple  form,  shown  in  Fig.  34  as  Bed  Table  I,  can 


122  OCCTJPATION    THERAPY 

most  easily  be  made  of  basswood  or  poplar,  and  a  mill 
bill  for  it  would  read  as  follows : 

Mill  Bill  for  Bed  Table  I. 

1  piece  I  X  14  X  22      1 

2  pieces  |^  x  1^  x  14    J 


4  pieces  ^  x  2  x  9 
2  pieces  |^  x  2  x  13 


Legs 


The  two  pieces  ^  x  1^  x  14  sliould  be  fastened  across 
the  ends  of  the  largest  piece,  ^  x  14  x  22,  as  battens,  to 
prevent  warping  and  to  give  additional  stability  to  the 
legs.  Two  of  the.  pieces  |-  x  2  x  9  should  be  fastened 
with  a  lap  joint  to  the  ends  of  each  piece  ^  x  2  x  14  at 
right  angles  to  it.  These  form  the  legs  and  are  fas- 
tened to  the  large  piece  with  hinges  so  as  to  permit 
their  being  folded  back  on  it  to  be  out  of  the  way.  A 
more  finished  looking  job  can  be  made  by  the  use  of 
heavier  material  for  the  legs  as  in  that  illustrated  in 
Fig.  33,  where  1|  inch  stuff  is  used;  but  this  adds 
weight.  Or  larger  pieces,  ^  x  9  x  14,  may  be  used  to 
form  legs  and  may  have  a  double  ogee  cut  in  the  lower 
side  for  ornament,  but  these  are  not  so  good  as  the 
legs  formed  from  three  pieces. 

Bed  Table  II. 

A  better  form  of  bed  table  is  one  which  can  be  in- 
clined to  support  a  book,  or  paper  on  which  the  patient 
may  wish  to  draw  or  write  (Fig.  35). 


Fig.  33.— Bed  Table,  I. 


"WOOD  "WOEK 


123 


r^ 


*to 


•4; 


124  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

Mill  Bill  for  Bed  Table  II. 

1  piece  ^  X  13^  x  22 

1  piece  ^  X  1  X  22 

2  pieces  ^  x  1|  x  14 

4  pieces  -1x2x9        ")  j 
2  pieces  |  x  2  x  14       j      ^^^ 

2  pieces  -J  x  1^  x  8       )  _ 

1  piece  ixUx  19        (     ""^^ 

2  pieces  ^  x  1^  x  14   "^ 

2  pieces  ^  x  1|  x  22     >  Erame 
2  pieces  f  x  3  x  11       J 

First  making  the  top,  the  piece  ^  x  1  x  22  is  rounded 
on  both  edges  of  one  side  and  fastened  along  one  side 
of  the  piece  |  x  13|  x  22,  to  serve  as  a  rest  for  the 
book  or  paper,  the  two  pieces  -J  x  1|  x  14  being  fas- 
tened across  the  end  as  battens.  The  legs  are  made  as 
for  bed  table  I.  The  frame  is  next  made  by  cutting 
six  quarter-inch  notches  one  inch  apart  on  the  two 
pieces  f  x3xll,  cutting  them  but  1^  inches  across 
and  the  first  being  1^  inches  from  the  end.  The  side 
of  the  notch  nearest  to  the  end  should  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  and  the  other  side  slope  down  to  it.  The 
one  piece  should  be  the  converse  of  the  other.  The 
pieces  |  x  1^  x  22  are  lapped  on  the  pieces  4^  x  1|  x  14 
at  right  angles  to  form  a  rectangular  frame  with  the 
notched  pieces  lying  inside  or  between  the  longitudinal 


Fig.  35. — Bed  Table,  II.  At  the  right  the  leg  is  braced  with 
a  modified  jack  knife  desk  rest,  on  the  left  by  a  hook. 
The  smaller  hook  just  above  it  holds  the  frame  and  the 
top  together  when  folded. 


Fig.  36. — The  same  table  as  Fig.  3.5  closed. 


"WOOD  WOEK  125 

pieces.  Tlie  prop  is  made  by  lap  jointing  the  piece 
■|  X  1^  X  19  at  the  middle  of  the  two  pieces  -|  x  1|  x  8, 
these  being  sharpened  at  the  end,  which  is  to  fit  into 
the  notches,  and  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  top 
piece  with  hinges  set  six  inches  from  the  lower  edge  so 
that  the  prop  will  fall  into  the  notches  as  the  top  is 
raised.  The  top  and  frame  are  hinged  together  at  the 
lower  edge,  and  the  legs  hinged  to  the  lower  side  of 
the  frame  close  to  the  end  pieces  to  give  stability.  When 
folded  this  table  occupies  a  space  of  but  2  x  14  x  22 
inches  and  weighs  about  six  pounds.  Hooks  of  various 
sorts  may  be  used  to  hold  the  legs  in  position,  or  a  but- 
ton, but  the  best  arrangement  is  to  saw  off  two  jack- 
knife  desk  slides  about  three  inches  (when  folded)  as 
is  shown  in  Fig.  35;  or  dolphin  hinges  may  be  used. 
It  is  difficult  to  arrange  hooks  so  that  they  will  not 
slip,  but  the  manner  of  applying  them  is  shown  in 
Figs.  33  and  35. 

A  very  attractive  bed  table  was  made  by  a  blind 
cabinet  maker  of  the  Baltimore  Workshop  for  the 
Blind,  who  first  made  a  frame  with  handles  as  for  a 
glass-bottomed  serving  tray,  and  in  this  fitted  a  wooden 
frame  caned  in  octagonal  pattern  (see  page  154).  The 
legs  were  formed  by  two  U-shaped  pieces  of  iron,  ^  x  ^ 
inch,  fastened  to  the  caned  frame  and  folding  under 
it.  The  great  advantage  of  this  tray  is  lightness,  but 
it  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  having  a  flat  surface  on 
which  to  work,  and  of  having  a  number  of  crevices  to 
harbor  dirt,  in  case  food  should  be  spilt.  This  last 
objection  would  appear  to  be  rather  theoretical  than 


126 


OCCUPATIOlSr    THEKAPT 


it-/M'ife 


I      ^ 


* — r 


>-i^ 


■--Ihk 


i-r 


19 


r^\H 


If 


^il-' 


/4 


Fig.   37.— Working  Drawing  of  Bed  Table,   II. 


WOOD  WOEK 


127 


Fig.    37A. 


practical,  as  cane-seated  chairs  have  never  been  classed 
as  dirt  catchers.  A  bed  tray  adds  greatly  to  the  com- 
fort of  the  bed  patient. 

Directions  and  suggestions  for  attractive  and  use- 
ful wooden  articles  are  constantly  appearing  in  the 
periodicals.  These,  with  some  book  on  the  subject, 
should  be  consulted  by  the  nurse  who  is  interested. 


PICTUEE  PUZZLES. 

The  solving  of  puzzle  pictures  which  was  so  popular 
an  amusement  for  convalescents  in  some  of  our  general 
hospitals  a  few  years  ago,  is  an  excellent  diversion,  and 
the  nurse's  armentarium  should  include  one  or  more  of 
these.  A  number  of  patients  are  known  to  have  been 
helped  to  recovery  by  the  use  of  a  scroll  saw  in  making 
puzzles.  Any  picture  can  be  used,  but  the  best  are 
those  which  have  distinct  outlines  and  are  rather 
brightly  colored.  According  as  they  are  cut  will  their 
solving  be  difficult  or  easy.  The  first  step,  however, 
is  to  mount  our  picture.  Usually  poplar  or  basswood 
of  about  one-eighth  inch  thickness  is  used,  but  some- 
times this  is  difiicult  to  procure.  Some  of  the  larger 
hardware  supply  houses  sell  what  is  called  triple 
veneer  which  is  an  excellent  substitute  and  indeed  is 
preferred  by  some  puzzle  makers.  Old  cast  off  cigar 
boxes  may  serve  to  make  small  puzzles,  but  if  no  thin 
wood  is  procurable  we  must  use  newsboard  or  some 
other  form  of  pasteboard.  Assuming  that  we  have  been 
fortunate  in  securing  the  piece  of  thin  poplar,  or  bet- 
ter, basswood,  the  picture  is  thoroughly  pasted  on  the 
back  and,  after  being  laid  on  the  wood,  is  covered  with 
a  piece  of  paper  and  rubbed  with  the  hand  or  pad  of 
some  sort  to  insure  a  close  apposition  between  the  wood 
and  the  picture  and  to  get  rid  of  any  air  bubbles. 
When  this  has  been  done  the  wood  is  turned  over  and 

128 


PICTUEE    PUZZLES  129 

a  piece  of  paper  is  mounted  on  the  back.  This  lessens 
the  tendency  to  warp.  The  wood  is  then  laid  on  a  flat 
surface  under  pressure  to  prevent  warping  during  the 
drying.  When  drying  is  completed  we  are  ready  to 
saw  our  picture  with  a  fret  or  coping  saw.  The  or- 
dinary blades  which  are  supplied  for  scroll  sawing 
usually  make  quite  a  coarse  cut,  and  what  is  known  as 
a  metal  blade  (ISTo.  5)  will  do  more  satisfactory  work. 
If  we  wish  to  make  our  puzzle  an  easy  one  we  simply 
saw  wavy  lines  from  top  to  bottom  and  then  across. 
The  resulting  irregular  pieces  having  been  cut  with  no 
relation  to  the  picture  will  be  found  to  be  quite  easily 
rearranged  to  form  the  picture.  If  we  wish  the  puzzle 
to  be  difficult,  we  saw  out  according  to  the  design,  the 
saw  following  lines  which  indicate  contrasts,  such  as 
that  between  the  face  and  a  hood,  or  between  the  white 
trouser  and  green  grass,  the  object  being  to  eliminate 
any  bit  of  color  on  one  piece  which  will  give  a  clue  to 
the  piece  which  adjoins  it. 

It  is  usually  more  difficult  to  solve  the  puzzle  by 
form  rather  than  color  clues.  Sometimes  it  is  possible 
to  make  forms  of  animals  or  objects  in  the  pieces  which 
are  sawn  up  after  the  first  sawing  has  been  done  to 
eliminate  the  color  clues.  Practice  is  needed  to  reach 
this  point,  however. 

But  if  we  cannot  procure  wood  and  have  to  use  paste- 
board we  can  still  make  very  delightful  and  useful 
puzzles.  The  simplest  way  is  by  straight  cuts  of  scis- 
sors into  irregular  pieces.  If  the  pasteboard  is  not  too 
thick  this  can  be  done  very  well.     We  can  also  cut  in 


130  OCCUPATION    THEEAPT 

curves  and  follow  the  outlines  of  objects  as  indicated 
above  and  produce  a  more  interesting  puzzle.  It  is 
just  as  necessary  to  mount  a  back  on  pasteboard  to  pre- 
vent warping,  and  we  should  be  careful  that  the  paste- 
board is  sufficiently  thin  to  be  cut  with  the  available 
scissors.  A  card  cutter  may  be  used  for  this  work  in 
the  hospital,  and  on  this  binder's  board  may  be  cut; 
but  most  households  do  not  possess  one  of  these  unless 
an  amateur  photographer  is  a  member  of  it. 

Pictures  with  a  good  deal  of  detail  and  somewhat 
amusing  in  character  often  make  most  valuable  puzzles, 
because  they  appeal  more  to  the  solver.  One  of  the 
most  difficult  of  these  puzzles  that  I  ever  saw  was  made 
from  a  Japanese  print  and  consisted  of  about  200 
pieces.  The  peculiar  attitudes  and  unusual  coloring 
really  forced  one  to  solve  by  shape  rather  than  color  or 
design.  Periodicals  often  contain  pictures  which  make 
excellent  puzzles  when  cut  up,  and  their  covers  are  of 
especial  value. 


BASKETRY. 

Of  the  origin  of  basketry  we  know  little.  It  is  one 
of  the  oldest  of  handicrafts  and  possibly  our  ancestors, 
Adam  and  Eve,  were  the  inventors.  The  Roman  sol- 
diers at  the  Conquest  of  Britain  were  astonished  at  the 
coracles  of  the  Britons,  which,  as  we  all  remember  from 
the  picture  in  our  history  books,  were  basket  boats  cov- 
ered with  hides.  Probably  the  earliest  reference  in  his- 
tory is  to  the  ark  of  bulrushes  in  which  Moses  lay  when 
found  by  Pharaoh's  daughter  (Exodus  2,  10).  Mr. 
George  Wharton  James,  who  is  an  authority  on  Indian 
baskets,^  is  of  the  opinion  that  baskets  have  developed 
from  the  net  work  which  was  made  to  protect  gourds 
used  to  carry  water  across  the  desert,  and  so  render 
them  less  liable  to  break.  Much  folk-lore  and  tradi- 
tion has  been  woven  into  baskets  which  the  Indian 
squaws  made,  and  ethnologists  have  studied  them  in 
order  to  preserve  the  history  of  a  race  that  has  become 
so  amalgamated  with  the  Caucasian  that  it  has  to  a 
large  degree  lost  its  identity.  The  Indian  used  baskets 
for  many  purposes.  He  had  them  in  a  sack-like  form 
for  carrying  grain,  jar-like  for  storing  it,  baskets  in 
which  to  boil  acorns  by  means  of  hot  stones  dropped 
in  the  water,  plaques  for  food,  and,  in  fact,  baskets  for 
every  conceivable  purpose.     They  were  even  used  in 

1  James,  George  Wliarton.  Indian  Basketry  and  How  to 
Make  Indian  and  Other  Baskets.  Third  Edition.  Pasadena, 
Cal.,  1903.     Privately  printed  by  the  author. 

131 


132  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

ceremonies  and  often  show  the  value  placed  on  them  by 
the  maker  by  the  bits  of  ornament  added  to  them,  such 
as  wampum,  feathers,  beads,  bits  of  silver,  etc.  Efforts 
have  been  made  to  preserve  this  art,  for  to  such  a  point 
did  the  American  Indian  carry  it,  and  many  persons, 
both  Indian  and  Caucasian,  by  collecting  the  best  speci- 
mens and  by  teaching  have  striven  to  bring  this  work 
back  to  the  high  point  as  shown  by  some  of  the  older 
specimens.  Even  untrained  Indians,  however,  still 
produce  beautiful  baskets,  but  occasionally  the  desire 
for  an  exclusive  design  or  color  combination  causes  the 
production  of  something  unattractive.  Harriet  Cush- 
man  Wilkie^  has  recorded  that  one  squaw  thought  she 
had  achieved  her  ambition  for  an  exclusive  design  when 
she  offered  for  sale  a  beautifully  fine  white  basket,  with 
a  border  in  the  black  stems  of  maiden  hair  ferns  as 
follows : 

MOMOMOI-IOMOI-HOMOMOMO 

The  Indian  used  any  material  that  might  be  near  at 
hand  and  we  have  baskets  made  of  willow,  yucca  fibre, 
palm,  wood  splints,  barks,  roots,  grasses  and  stems,  all 
of  various  kinds. 

Like  the  Indian  we  may  make  baskets  of  the  material 
near  at  hand,  although  most  of  us  prefer  to  buy  it  ready 
prepared  for  weaving.  There  is  opportunity  for  a  bas- 
ket maker  to  develop  some  special  material  or  method 

Wilkie,  Harriet  Cushman.  American  Basketry.  The 
Modern  Priscilla,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  4,  June,  1902. 


BASKETRY  133 

of  basket  making,  as  has  been  done  with  long  pine 
needles  for  coil  work,  or  with  honeysuckle  vines. 

The  most  common  materials  for  baskets  are  reed, 
raffia,  willow,  wood  splints,  and  rushes,  although  bam- 
boo, straw,  husks,  sweet  and  other  kinds  of  grass, 
maiden-hair  fern  stems,  honeysuckle,  long  pine  needles, 
and  crepe  paper  have  been  used. 

Reed  is  made  from  rattan  or  cane,  which  is  a  vine 
growing,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  in  the  East  India 
Islands  where  there  is  an  annual  rainfall  of  about  128 
inches.  It  is  said  to  grow  as  long  as  500  feet,  but  270 
feet  is  said  to  be  an  average  length.  After  the  vine 
has  grown  four  years  the  single  shoot  that  comes  up 
from  the  seed  is  cut,  and  from  this  300  shoots  come  out. 
These  are  cut  every  year,  stripped  of  their  leaves  and 
cut  into  convenient  lengths  for  shipping  and  handling. 
The  outer  smooth  bark  is  shaved  off  and  forms  the  cane 
with  which  we  are  familiar  in  cane  seated  chairs.  The 
inner  part,  or  pith,  is  made  into  various  sizes  from  00, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  coarse  thread,  to  10,  which 
is  about  a  half  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  to  this 
part  that  we  apply  the  name  of  reed.  One  of  the  great 
advantages  of  reed  as  a  material  for  baskets  is  that  we 
may  leave  our  basket  incomplete  at  any  stage  and  come 
back  and  finish  it  at  any  time  without  in  any  way  spoil- 
ing our  basket.  Another  advantage  is  that  it  comes  in 
pieces  about  12  feet  long.  It  dyes  well  and  is  one  of 
the  most  convenient  of  basketry  materials.  Our  de- 
pendence upon  it  was  shown  at  the  outbreak  of  the  pres- 
ent European  War  when,  in  consequence  of  the  usual 


134  occiJPATioisr  thekapt 

demand  and  a  cut  off  supply,  it  coming  from  Germany, 
tlie  price  in  limited  quantities  rose  30  per  cent. 

Eaffia  is  the  epidermal  strips  of  one  of  tlie  Palmaceae, 
Eaphia  ruffia,  which  grows  in  Madagascar,  and  Raphia 
taedigera,  which  grows  in  Japan.  It  seems  to  be  a  long- 
leafed  grass,  usually  being  marketed  about  30  inches 
long.  It  is  used  as  binder  twine  in  horticulture  and  by 
florists  to  tie  up  their  plants.  It  dyes  in  beautiful 
shades,  but  must  first  be  soaked  in  some  mildly  alkaline 
solution  such  as  soapy  water.  With  this  material  beau- 
tiful baskets  closely  resembling  Indian  baskets  have 
been  made.  I  have  seen  others  made  in  poster  or  chintz 
designs  which  were  most  attractive. 

Willow  is  the  most  common  basket  material  for  com- 
mercial Use.  Bbtanically  it  is  known  as  Salix,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties,  and  has  a  wide  distribution, 
being  usually  cultivated  in  lowlands  which  can  be 
flooded.  After  the  piece  of  willow  which  has  been  put 
in  the  earth  has  rooted,  it  is  cut  off.  ^Numerous  shoots 
are  sent  out  which  are  allowed  to  grow  until  they  are 
about  5  feet  long,  when  they  are  cut.  The  cutting, 
however,  must  be  done  in  the  early  spring,  when  the 
sap  begins  to  run,  or  just  before  cold  weather,  though 
some  willow  growers  do  the  cutting  in  August.  These 
twigs  are  bundled  and  set  in  boiling  water  to  loosen  the 
bark,  which  is  peeled  off  by  passing  the  twig  between 
two  upright  pieces  of  metal,  which  pull  off  the  bark 
without  scraping  the  twig.  After  bundling,  the  twigs 
are  ready  to  be  marketed  and  are  sold  at  about  6  cents 
per  pound.     The  disadvantage  of  this  material  for  use 


BASKETRY  135 

by  the  amateur  is  that  it  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
preparation.  For  weavers  the  willow  is  usually  split 
into  three,  a  knife  of  special  design  with  three  radiating 
blades  sometimes  being  used  to  start  the  splits,  although 
an  ordinary  knife  can  be  used.  The  splitting  is  com- 
pleted with  the  finger  or  a  specially  shaped  piece  of 
wood  which  forces  apart  the  three  pieces.  Here  is 
where  one  realizes  that  practice  makes  perfect.  These 
split  pieces  are  then  drawn  under  a  knife  set  horizon- 
tally in  a  block  so  that  it  is  a  certain  distance  above  the 
board  over  which  the  piece  of  willow  is  drawn.  This 
makes  them  of  a  uniform  thickness,  and  they  are  drawn 
between  two  upright  knives  to  makes  them  of  a  uni- 
form width,  although  the  tapering  which  all  willow 
shows  cannot  be  entirely  eliminated  except  by  using 
very  short  pieces.  A  good  basket  maker  takes  advan- 
tage of  the  tapering  to  make  some  beautiful  effects. 
Besides  the  disadvantage  of  the  necessary  preparation 
for  the  amateur,  another  is  the  necessity  of  finishing 
certain  parts  before  laying  the  work  aside.  This  is 
because  the  drying  must  take  place  uniformly.  For 
example,  in  making  a  willow  basket  we  may  make  the 
bottom,  the  sides,  the  border,  and  the  handle  in  separate 
operations,  but  we  cannot  stop  in  the  midst  of  any  one, 
or  our  basket  will  be  unshapely.  Willow  bends  more 
easily  than  reed  and  has  a  more  pleasant  feel  in  work- 
ing, so  that  I  prefer  it. 

Wood  splints  were  made  by  the  Indians  by  shaving 
off  thin,  broad  strips  of  hickory.  At  the  present  time 
they  are  made  by  machinery  from  several  kinds  of  wood 


136  OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 

and  form  containers  for  many  uses,  among  them  being 
berry  boxes,  clothes  baskets,  etc.  They  may  be  dyed, 
and  from  them  can  be  made  very  attractive  baskets. 

Corn  husJi's  are  said  to  form  very  beautiful  baskets 
on  account  of  their  beautiful  colors.  They  are  usually 
split  into  a  certain  width  and  braided  to  form  weavers, 
as  it  is  not  possible  to  form  them  into  a  basket  without 
some  more  rigid  material  as  a  support.  They  may  also 
be  used  in  coil  work.  Cat-tails  or  rushes  may  be  used 
in  the  same  way.  Botanically  this  is  Scripus  lacustris. 
It  should  be  gathered  in  July,  or  before  the  "cat-tails" 
mature,  and  should  be  dried  slowly. 

Siveet  grass  is  usually  bought  braided.  Botanically  it 
is  Zostera,  one  of  a  group  of  aquatic  plants  which  grow 
in  shallow  bogs.  So  far  as  I  know,  it  grows  best  in 
Maine.  It  also  can  only  be  used  as  a  weaver  or  for 
coil  work,  as  it  is  very  fine  and  only  about  eight  inches 
long. 

Maiden-Jiair  fern  stem,  which  beautifies  so  many  In- 
dian baskets,  can  be  procured  in  most  of  our  forests  if 
we  take  the  trouble  to  gather  it.  Its  gathering  would 
be  an  excellent  motive  for  a  walk.  It  is  said  to  be  the 
most  perfect  black  known. 

Honey  suckle  vines  have  been  used  and  make  very  un- 
usual baskets.  It  would  seem  that  this  material  might 
be  developed  into  a  substitute  for  reed  by  boiling  and 
stripping  the  bark  as  is  done  with  willow.  This  and 
some  other  of  our  common  plants  offer  opportunities  to 
the  experimenter.     Toughness  and  length  are  the  spe- 


Fig.  38. — Basketry  Tools. 


BASKETRY  137 

cially  desirable  qualities  that  basket  material  should 
possess. 

In  the  following  pages  it  is  assumed  that  the  material 
used  is  reed,  as  this  requires  less  equipment  than  willow 
and  is  therefore  the  most  convenient  material  for  the 
private  nurse  to  use.  It  can  be  purchased  in  small 
quantities  at  any  of  the  educational  supply  stores. 

In  doing  reed  work  it  is  necessary  to  have  three,  and 
preferably,  six  tools.  These  are,  first,  a  pair  of  cutting 
pliers,  either  end  or  side,  the  latter  being  preferred  by 
most  basket  makers,  to  cut  the  reed.  Scissors  will  not 
reach  to  some  parts  of  baskets  where  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  the  reed.  Second,  a  pair  of  round-nosed  pliers  to 
crush  the  reed  when  it  is  to  be  bent.  Third,  a  carpen- 
ter's scratch  or  marking  awl,  which  is  used  to  split  the 
reed  or  to  make  openings  between  reeds  after  it  has 
been  woven.  Fourth,  a  specially  made  tool  (Fig.  38) 
to  press  the  reeds  together.  This  saves  the  fingers,  is 
very  convenient,  and  costs  little.  It  can  be  made  from 
a  scratch  awl  by  flattening  it  back  of  the  point  and 
bending  it  over,  or  by  filing  off  the  corners  of  a  five- 
inch  screw  driver  and  then  bending  it.  This  last  is 
probably  the  better  tool,  but  a  broad  nut-pick  will  serve 
fairly  well.  The  plate  makes  this  more  clear.  Fifth, 
a  knife  will  be  found  to  be  useful,  as  will  also,  sixth, 
a  measure. 

The  nurse  must  understand  that  in  the  following  di- 
rections she  is  given  but  the  necessary  rudiments  of 
basketry.  As  before  said,  the  object  of  this  book  is  to 
point  the  way  only,  and  if  a  craft  is  to  be  followed 


138  OCCITPATIO^s^     THERAPY 

out  and  developed  it  must  be  done  by  reference  to  some 
of  the  many  works  on  tlie  subject.  As  to  the  best  book 
on  basketry,  it  is  like  Betsey  Gamp's  friend  Mrs.  'Arris. 
Personally,  I  prefer  Turner's^  The  Basket  Maker  for 
beginners,  as  it  seems  to  me  to  point  out  essential  prin- 
ciples most  clearly.  Marten's^  Inexpensive  Basketry 
is  the  best  for  the  beginner  in  coil  work,  and  has  many 
good  suggestions  as  to  obtaining  materials.  There  are 
so  many  good  books  on  the  subject  that  almost  anyone 
will  give  sufficient  information  to  make  its  purchase 
profitable. 

Spokes  are  the  coarser  reeds  used  as  a  foundation 
around  which  the  winders  or  weavers  are  woven. 

The  weaving  is  almost  invariably  done  from  left  to 
right. 

A  tub  or  bucket  of  water  and  a  wet  sponge  or  cloth 
should  always  be  at  hand  to  keep  the  reed  moist.  The 
reed  should  always  be  soaked  until  thoroughly  wet  be- 
fore it  is  worked. 

BASES. 

In  making  a  basket  we  must  first  begin  with  the 
base.  These  may  be  woven  from  the  same  material  of 
which  the  basket  is  made  or  may  be  of  some  other  ma- 
terial, usually  wood.  Poplar  is,  perhaps,  used  more 
than  any  other  kind,  but  basswood  and  oak  are  better 
looking.     A  piece  of  wood  of  the  size  and  shape  that  it 

1  Turner,  Luther  W.  The  Basket  Maker.  Worcester,  Mass., 
The  Davis  Press,  1909.     $1.00. 

2  Marten,  "William  S.  Inexpensive  Basketry.  Peoria,  Illi- 
nois, The  Manual  Arts  Press.     25  cents. 


BASKETRY  139 

is  desired  to  make  the  basket  is  sawed  from  quarter-incli 
stuff,  and  about  the  edge,  about  a  quarter  of  an  incb 
back  from  it  are  drilled  holes  the  size  of  the  spokes  that 
are  to  be  used.  The  number  and  distance  apart  will  be 
governed  by  the  size  of  reed  used  in  the  weaving.  The 
spokes  having  been  put  in  these  holes,  are  pulled  through 
on  the  bottom  side  until  they  project  for  two  or  more 
inches.  With  the  round-nose  pliers  crush  each  spoke 
close  to  the  base,  bend  it  over  and  pass  it  in  front  of  the 
next  two,  and  back  of  the  third.  After  doing  this  all 
around  the  base,  the  ends  are  trimmed  close.  Some 
persons  prefer  to  insert  the  spokes  in  the  base  by  tipping 
them  with  glue,  but  it  is  preferable  to  use  the  above 
method,  or  to  make  a  foot  by  weaving  on  as  much  as  may 
be  desired.  A  wooden  base  is  better  than  a  reed  base 
for  waste  baskets,  jardinieres,  or  for  any  container 
which  requires  a  closed  bottom. 

Reed  or  woven  bottoms  are  preferable  in  most  baskets. 
Taking  the  spokes  we  find  their  middle  by  doubling  or 
measuring,  and  holding  half  the  number  flat  between 
the  left  forefinger  and  thumb,  cross  over  them  at  right 
angles  the  remaining  spokes.  Taking  a  weaver  in  the 
right  hand,  place  the  end  between  the  lower  group  of 
spokes  and  the  left  forefinger,  then  wind  above  the  up- 
per group  and  below  the  lower  group  until  two  complete 
circuits  have  been  made.  Continue  the  winding,  going 
alternately  above  and  below  each  spoke  until  the  diam- 
eter is  the  size  desired.  It  will  be  found  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  first  circuit  of  winding  of  single  spokes 
that  the  next  circuit  will  bring  the  winder  alongside  of 


140  OCCUPATION    THEEAPT 

the  winder  and  not  on  tlie  opposite  side  of  the  spoke. 
This  may  be  overcome  in  several  ways,  first,  by  using 
a  second  winder  at  the  completion  of  the  first  circuit; 
second,  by  using  a  half  spoke  so  that  the  number  of 
spokes  is  odd  instead  of  even;  third,  by  skipping  a 
spoke,  which  is  permissible  only  for  a  circuit  or  two, 
and  lastly,  by  using  the  Japanese  weave,  which  consists 
in  passing  the  winder  over  two  spokes  and  under  one, 
producing  a  very  pretty  effect.  Usually  in  the  direc- 
tions for  making  the  basket  it  is  indicated  which  one 
of  these  methods  is  to  be  used. 

Having  completed  the  base  we  are  ready  to  turn  up 
the  spokes  to  form  the  sides  of  the  basket  and  make 
what  is  called  the  upset.  First,  crush  each  spoke  close 
to  the  weaving,  using  the  round-nosed  pliers,  turn  them 
up  and  continue  weaving,  keeping  the  spokes  in  the 
position  that  we  wish  the  sides  to  take.  It  is  essential 
to  remember  that  the  spokes  give  the  shape  to  the  basket, 
that  the  winder  serves  to  give  them  strength  merely, 
and  any  irregularity  of  position  of  the  spoke  will  give 
an  irregularity  in  the  shape  of  the  basket.  It  is  some- 
times desired  to  make  some  sort  of  a  finish  before  be- 
ginning the  side  weaving.  Frequently  an  arrow  is 
made  (page  142),  or  triple  weaving,  or  some  other 
special  weave,  is  used  for  a  complete  circuit  or  two, 
after  which  the  simple  weaving  is  used  to  form  the  sides. 
These  having  been  completed  to  the  desired  height,  the 
basket  is  finished  with  a  border  and  a  handle  if  the  lat- 
ter is  desired. 

In  making  the  base,  instead  of  laying  half  of  the 


BASKETEY  141 

spokes  on  top  of  the  remainder  and  binding  them  to- 
gether, we  may  split  half  of  the  spokes  at  the  middle 
with  the  awl  and  push  the  remaining  spokes  through 
them;  this,  of  course,  makes  the  hottom  flatter  than  is 
possible  when  the  spokes  are  bound  together.  Willow 
bases  are  usually  made  in  this  manner.  In  making  the 
upset  sometimes  the  spoke  is  cut  off,  and  a  spoke  is  in- 
serted on  one  or  both  sides  of  it.  This  may  be  done 
for  many  reasons,  but  willow  baskets  are  practically 
always  made  in  this  way.  The  sides  of  the  basket  hav- 
ing twice  as  many  spokes  as  the  base  is  so  much  the 
stronger,  and  the  bottom  is  better  because  it  is  not 
crowded  with  spokes. 

In  making  the  sides  of  a  basket  there  are  a  number 
of  weaves  that  we  may  use.  Single  weaving  is  most 
commonly  used  and  consists  in  placing  the  weaver 
alternately  before  and  behind  the  spokes. 

Double  weaving  is  done  by  using  two  weavers  at  the 
same  time  and  laying  them  together  before  and  behind 
alternate  spokes,  the  weavers  lying  side  by  side,  parallel, 
and  not  crossing  each  other. 

Pairing  is  also  worked  with  two  weavers,  one  being 
placed  before  and  the  other  behind  the  same  spoke,  and 
the  weavers  being  crossed  between  the  spokes. 

Triple  Twist,  or  weaving,  is  done  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  pairing,  but  with  three  weavers.  These  are 
placed  behind  three  consecutive  spokes  and,  beginning 
with  the  left  hand  one,  are  brought  in  succession  before 
two  spokes  and  back  of  the  next,  each  being  laid  on  top 
of  the  other  two  weavers. 


142  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

The  Eope  Twist  is  a  variation  of  tlie  foregoing  prin- 
ciple, four  weavers  being  used,  eacla  passing  before  tbree 
consecutive  spokes  and  behind  the  fourth,  each  being 
laid  on  top  of  the  other  three  weavers.  This  same  prin- 
ciple can  be  applied  to  a  larger  number  of  weavers, 
but  is  apt  to  give  too  loose  an  appearance  to  look  well. 

The  Japanese  Weave  is  made  with  a  single  weaver, 
which  goes  before  two  spokes  and  back  of  the  third. 
This  principle  can  also  be  extended  to  make  a  number 
of  variations,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  looser 
the  weaving  the  weaker  the  basket. 

Usually  combinations  of  the  above  are  made  to  give 

beauty  to  the  baskets.     Other  materials  than  reed  are 

also  used  such  as  braided  straw,  braided  rushes,  wood 

splints,  etc. 

THE  ARROW. 

The  arrow  is  used  like  triple  weaving  to  ornament  the 
basket,  and  is  only  used  to  make  a  complete  circumfer- 
ence, for  when  repeated  its  beauty  it  lost.  In  making 
the  arrow  it  is  necessary  to  have  three  winders,  each 
not  less  than  two  and  a  half  times  as  long  as  the  cir- 
cumference. It  is  usually  necessary  to  insert  but  two 
extra  ones  if  the  original  winder  is  sufficiently  long. 
These  are  inserted  in  separate  interspaces,  and  the  left 
hand  winder  is  passed  under  the  other  two  before  the 
next  two  spokes,  behind  the  third  and  out,  repeating 
this  to  the  beginning.  Then  make  the  reverse  by  pass- 
ing the  right  hand  winder  before  two  spokes,  behind 
one,  and  out.  Do  this  with  the  other  two  winders. 
Then  take  the  left  hand  winder,  pass  it  over  the  other 


BASKETRY  143 

two,  before  two  spokes,  behind  the  next  and  out.  Re- 
peat this  to  the  starting  point,  which  it  is  well  to  mark 
with  a  pencil  or  thread.  The  extra  winders  are  passed 
to  the  inside  of  the  basket  and  cut  off  at  the  finish. 

BORDERS. 

A  basket  requires  a  border  to  give  it  a  neat  finish, 
and  there  are  a  variety  of  these.  The  border  often 
serves  to  streng-then  the  basket,  especially  when  they  are 
made  in  what  appears  to  be  a  complicated  way,  and  give 
what  may  be  termed  a  heavy  finish  to  the  basket.  Bord- 
ers are  always  made  with  the  spokes,  which  are  usually 
bent  down  close  to  the  weaving,  and  thus  hold  it  close 
and  so  make  the  basket  firm.  Open  borders,  or  lattice 
borders,  as  some  call  them,  are  not  bent  down  close,  and 
as  a  consequence  the  basket  is  not  so  firm  as  it  should 
be,  and  presents  a  somewhat  unfinished  appearance. 

The  simplest  open  border  is  made  by  cutting  off  all 
of  the  spokes  to  a  uniform  length  of  about  three  inches, 
bending  each  one  down  and  pushing  the  end  down  be- 
side the  next  spoke.    This  gives  a  scalloped  effect. 

A  much  better  effect  is  obtained  by  pushing  the  end 
down  beside  the  next  but  one  spoke.  This  gives  the 
effect  of  overlapping  scallops. 

Some  of  the  open  borders  can  be  made  very  attrac- 
tive by  using  paired  spokes  which  are  left  quite  long 
and  inserted  three  or  four  spokes  beyond  their  origin. 
This  gives  a  loosely  woven  effect  which  may  be  very 
attractive,  as  in  Madeira  baskets. 

The  following  border  may  be  made  either  open  or 


144:  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

closed,  the  difference  being  that  when  made  closed  all  of 
the  spokes  are  drawn  tightly  down  to  the  weaving  except 
the  first  three,  which  are  left  open  to  permit  the  thread- 
ing of  the  last  three  through  them.  It  is  customary  to 
bend  these  first  three  spokes  over  pieces  of  waste  reed 
of  the  same  size  as  the  spoke.  In  making  this  border 
closed,  the  length  of  spoke  above  the  woven  side  should 
be  six  inches.  Take  the  first  spoke  and  bend  it  down 
at  one  and  a  half  inches  above  the  edge  of  the  basket 
when  it  is  to  be  made  open,  or  if  the  border  is  to  be 
closed,  crush  all  of  the  spokes  close  to  the  edge,  then 
bend  it  over  the  piece  of  waste  reed,  pass  it  behind  the 
second  spoke  before  the  third  and  behind  the  fourth, 
leaving  the  end  at  the  front  of  the  basket.  Work  each 
spoke  in  the  same  way  until  all  are  down  but  the  last 
three.  Take  the  first  of  these,  bring  it  down  behind  the 
second  and  before  the  third,  then  thread  it  from  behind 
under  the  first  spoke  used.  Take  the  second  spoke, 
bring  it  behind  the  remaining  one  and  thread  it  be- 
fore and  behind  the  first  and  second  spokes  used.  The 
last  spoke  is  threaded  behind  and  before  and  behind 
the  first  three  spokes,  which  will  complete  the  pattern. 
The  ends  may  be  cut  off,  but  it  is  better  to  finish  with 
what  is  called  the  single  plait,  which  is  made  by  bring- 
ing up  each  spoke  behind  the  next,  the  last  being 
threaded  under  the  first.  A  variation  is  to  work  this 
with  the  basket  turned  upside  down  and  the  movements 
reversed. 

Another  closed  border  is  made  by  laying  the  first 
spoke  behind  the  second,  leaving  space  for  threading  the 


BASKETEY  145 

ends  of  the  last  spokes.  Lay  tlie  second  spoke  behind 
the  third.  Pick  up  the  first  spoke  and  lay  it  before  the 
third  and  behind  the  fourth.  Take  the  third  spoke 
(which  is  still  upright),  bring  it  down  beside  the  first 
and  behind  the  fourth,  making  one  pair  of  ends  turned 
down.  The  spokes  forming  these  pairs  must  each  in 
turn  be  kept  side  by  side  (the  longer  of  the  two  being 
the  right)  and  held  flat  imder  the  thumb  until  the  next 
pair  is  turned  down.  Pick  up  the  second  spoke,  bring 
it  before  the  fourth  and  behind  the  fifth.  Take  the 
fourth  (which  is  still  upright),  and  bring  it  beside  the 
second  and  behind  the  fifth,  making  the  second  pair. 
The  longest  of  the  first  pair  must  now  be  brought  be- 
fore the  fifth  (which  is  still  upright)  and  behind  the 
sixth,  the  fifth  being  brought  do^^ni  beside  it  as  before. 
The  shortest  spoke  of  each  pair  is  left  to  be  cut  off  at 
the  front  when  the  work  is  finished,  or  to  be  threaded 
through  to  the  inside  and  cut  off  there,  making  the  edge 
still  more  substantial.  Proceed  on  this  principle  until 
all  of  the  upright  spokes  but  one  have  been  brought 
down,  and  if  correctly  worked,  there  will  always  be 
two  pairs  of  ends  after  the  first  pair  is  started,  but  never 
more  than  two.  Take  the  longer  of  the  first  pair  and 
slip  it  behind  and  under  the  first  spoke,  the  last  up- 
right spoke  being  brought  down  beside  it  in  the  usual 
way,  and  passed  under  the  same  spoke.  Two  pairs  of 
ends  will  still  be  left.  Take  the  longest  of  the  first 
pair,  lay  it  in  front  of  and  beside  the  first  spoke,  bring- 
ing it  out  to  the  front  under  the  second  spoke.  Take 
the  longest  end  of  the  last  pair,  bring  it  in  front  of 


146  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

and  beside  the  second,  pass  it  under  the  third  and  the 
spoke  in  front  of  it.  This  border  requires  a  spoke  length 
of  eight  inches  and  is  sometimes  called  a  commercial 
border.  The  same  kind  of  a  border  may  be  worked  with 
three,  four,  five  or  more  spokes  as  easily  as  with  two, 
always  remembering  that  the  number  of  single  spokes 
turned  down  at  first  determines  the  number  of  pairs, 
and  that  these  must  never  vary  until  not  one  upright 
spoke  is  left.  The  ordinary  border  seen  on  a  commer- 
cial basket  is  made  with  five  spokes  and  is  called  a 
five  plait.  It  requires  a  spoke  length  of  ten  inches,  and 
is  a  very  handsome  and  substantial  border. 

A  very  simple  border  is  made  by  bringing  the  first 
spoke  back  of  the  second,  in  front  of  the  third  and 
fourth,  and  inside  of  the  basket,  repeating  this  for  each 
spoke.  The  ends  are  hidden  by  passing  over  the  next, 
under  the  third,  and  leaving,  or  cutting  off,  if  neces- 
sary. 

Various  other  borders  will  be  learned  as  the  basket- 
maker  progresses,  but  these  are  probably  the  most  neces- 
sary that  she  should  know. 

HANDLES. 

Handles  may  be  made  in  so  many  different  ways  that 
I  prefer  to  give  but  one  which  is  commonly  used  on 
commercial  baskets,  is  strong,  and  is  generally  incor- 
rectly made  by  the  novice.  Directions  for  making  in- 
dividual baskets  usually  tell  how  the  handles  should  be 
made  so  that  details  of  other  kinds  are  unnecessary  here. 
Handles  are  usually  made  of  a  large  size  of  reed  or 


BASKETKY  147 

willow  which  should  be  specified  when  ordering.  A 
piece  of  this  of  the  required  length  is  sharpened  at  both 
ends,  which  are  forced  into  the  basket  beside  two  spokes 
which  are  directly  opposite  to  each  other.  A  long  piece 
of  reed  is  then  inserted  between  the  weaving  beside  the 
handle,  passed  around  it  three  times  and  inserted  be- 
tween the  weaving  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  basket 
and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  handle,  at  a  little  dis- 
tance from  it.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  three  turns  about 
the  handle  divide  it  into  five  spaces,  and  these  should 
be  made  as  equal  as  possible,  the  middle  turn  being 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  handle.  The  reed  is  then 
carried  back  alongside  the  first  turns,  through  the  weav- 
ing on  the  opposite  sides,  and  so  on,  back  and  forth,  un- 
til the  entire  handle  is  covered,  the  reed  always  lying 
alongside  and  never  crossing  the  previous  turn.  It  will 
also  be  noted  that  in  passing  through  the  weaving  that 
on  one  side  subsequent  turns  are  brought  farther  from 
the  handle,  while  on  the  other  they  come  nearer  to  it, 
which  is  the  reason  for  the  reed  being  passed  through 
the  weaving  at  a  little  distance  from  the  handle  at  the 
completion  of  the  first  turn — that  is,  to  allow  space  for 
subsequent  threadings  of  the  reed.  In  light,  ornamental 
baskets  but  three  turns  of  the  reed  are  sometimes  made 
with  excellent  effect. 

Directions  for  making  the  baskets  which  follow  are 
given  in  order  that  the  nurse  may  have  something 
definite  to  go  on  until  she  acquires  some  skill  in  bas- 
ketry. The  first  is  a  favorite  of  mine  because  it  brings 
in  a  number  of  principles. 


148  occupATioisr  thekapy 

JAPANESE  FLOWER  BASKET. 

For  spokes  use  16  pieces  ITo.  2  reed,  eacli  32  inclies 
long.     For  winders  use  ISTo.  1  or  ISTo.  2  reed. 

Arrange  the  spokes  in  fours  to  make  a  double  cross 
retaining  them  in  position  hy  a  winder  alternating  for 
four  complete  turns ;  then  skip  one  set  of  four  and  con- 
tinue winding  for  four  complete  turns.  Repeat  for  four 
more  turns,  next  divide  the  spokes  with  the  winder  into 
pairs,  making  a  complete  turn.  Start  a  new  winder 
which,  alternating  with  the  first,  continue  winding  al- 
ways keeping  the  inner  winder  ahead  of  the  outer,  keep- 
ing a  flat  surface  until  the  diameter  measures  three  and 
a  half  inches.  Then  crush  the  spokes,  turn  up  sharply 
and  make  an  arrow.  Continue  winding,  bending  in 
gradually  to  make  a  curved  surface  or  more  abruptly 
to  make  a  flatter  one  until  at  a  height  of  one  and  a  half 
inches  the  diameter  is  two  and  a  half  inches,  or  fits  a 
narrow  tumbler.     Finish  off  with  an  arrow. 

The  handle  is  made  by  dividing  the  spokes  into  two 
groups,  each  of  which  may  be  twisted  or  interwoven  in 
a  variety  of  ways. 

Overlap  the  ends  of  these  two  groups  and  fasten  with 
raffia.  Finish  off  by  wrapping  the  handle  with  'No.  1 
reed  or  with  the  half  round  reed  used  for  this  purpose. 
The  total  height  of  the  basket  will  be  about  ten  inches. 

MADEIRA  FRUIT  BASKET. 

Cut  21  spokes  of  ISTo.  4  reed  each  55  inches  long. 
Find  the  middle  of  each.     Split  six  of  them  at  the  mid- 


BASKETKY  149 

die  and  thread  six  other  spokes  through  the  split,  mak- 
ing a  cross.  Treat  the  remainder  in  the  same  way,  mak- 
ing another  cross.  Lay  one  cross  on  the  other,  so  that 
their  centres  coincide,  but  the  eight  groups  of  spokes 
are  equidistant  and  bind  them  together  temporarily  with 
raffia  or  string.  Bend  a  well-soaked  piece  of  ISTo.  2 
reed  in  the  middle  and  loop  it  over  the  bottom  group 
of  six  spokes,  then  with  one  strand  weave  under  and 
over  until  the  loop  is  reached,  then  do  the  same  with 
the  other  strand  until  three  rows  are  woven.  ISText  sep- 
arate the  spokes  into  groups  of  three  and  continue  the 
under  and  over  weaving  until  the  strands  end  when  re- 
place with  jSTo.  3  weavers  and  continue  until  the  diam- 
eter measures  six  inches.  Finish  with  an  arrow.  Mark 
off  sixteen  inches  on  each  spoke  and  see  that  they  are 
thoroughly  wet. 

Take  one  group  of  three  spokes  and  lace  it  under  the 
next  set  to  the  right,  over  the  second,  under  the  third, 
over  the  fourth,  under  the  fifth,  and  down  through  the 
arrow  at  the  base  of  the  fifth  set  to  the  sixteen  inch 
mark.  Repeat  with  each  group  of  spokes.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  to  keep  the  sides  of  the  basket  even. 
It  may  be  placed  against  the  body  and  moulded  with 
the  arms. 

Turn  the  basket  bottom  side  up  and  weave  four 
double  rows  of  plain  weaving  with  a  l^o.  3  weaver. 
TVet  the  spokes  again  and  turn  each  group  over  the  first 
set  to  the  right,  under  the  second,  and  tuck  the  ends 
under  the  bottom,  which  should  be  convex  in  shape. 

Tor  a  handle  take  two  30  inch  pieces  of  JSTo.  8  reed, 


150  OCCTJPATIOlSr    THERAPY 

soak  well,  and  insert  on  the  outside  of  the  basket  down 
into  the  extra  weaving  on  the  underside  and  fasten  in 
place  with  raffia.  Using  three  weavers  at  a  time  make 
a  six  ply  coil  over  the  handle,  catching  into  the  lace 
work  of  the  basket  on  the  way  over  and  back.  There 
should  be  nine  turns  about  the  large  reed,  and  it  will  be 
more  firmly  attached  to  the  basket  if  but  one  long  piece 
of  reed  is  used,  as  is  directed  on  page  146. 

COIL  WORK. 

Most  of  the  Indian  baskets  were  made  by  this  method 
even  though  willow  was  used  to  make  them.  By  means 
of  a  thread  and  needle,  a  rope  or  bundle  of  grasses,  or 
other  form  of  fibres,  is  coiled  about  itself  to  form  the 
shape  that  it  is  desired  to  make  the  basket.  The  thread 
is  some  form  of  fibre  which  possesses  toughness  and 
length,  and  is  not  composed  of  twisted  short  fibres  such 
as  we  usually  conceive  thread  to  be.  Cane  and  raffia  are 
the  threads  which  are  usually  used  for  this  work,  the 
former  for  large  pieces  and  the  latter  for  smaller  and 
more  ornamental  forms.  When  raffia  is  used  a  length 
of  reed  is  usually  used  for  the  coil,  as  it  makes  a  firmer 
and  more  stable  basket  than  when  a  bundle  of  raffia  is 
used.  Usually  ISTo.  5  reed  is  used  and  is  shaved  at  one 
end  to  form  a  point.  After  being  thoroughly  soaked  to 
make  it  pliable,  it  is  wrapped  with  a  strand  of  raffia 
and  bent  back  on  itself  to  form  a  circle  as  small  as  pos- 
sible, or  button,  and  is  held  by  wrappings  or  stitches 
of  raffia.    There  are  quite  a  number  of  these  stitches  to 


BASKETEY  151 

which  various  names  have  been  given,  sometimes  that  of 
the  tribe  of  which  thej  are  characteristic. 

The  figure-of-eight,  or  ISTavajo,  stitch  is  perhaps  the 
one  which  is  used  more  frequently  than  any  other,  but 
is  said  to  be  an  invention  of  some  white  woman  and  not 
an  Indian  stitch.  As  the  name  indicates,  it  consists  in 
making  a  figure  of  eight  with  the  thread  about  the  two 
parts  of  the  coil.  In  making  a  pattern  with  a  color 
it  must  be  remembered  that  both  parts  of  the  coil  will 
show  this  color. 

The  Lazy  Squaw  stitch  is  made  by  wrapping  the  raffia 
once  about  the  outer  coil,  then  once  around  the  outer 
and  one  below,  making  what  may  be  termed  a  long  and 
a  short  stitch,  which  is  continued.  Here  the  color  will 
also  show  on  two  coils.  In  using  a  color  with  the  na- 
tural raffia  the  one  which  is  not  used  is  turned  down 
and  covered  with  the  coil  by  the  one  that  it  is  desired 
to  show. 

The  Hopi  stitch  is  made  on  a  soft  coil  after  the  first 
circle,  or  button,  has  been  made  by  thrusting  the  needle 
through  the  upper  edge  of  the  coil  below,  pulling  the 
thread  tight,  making  a  wrapping  about  the  outer  coil, 
sewing  through  the  upper  edge  of  the  coil  below,  and 
so  continuing.  When  it  is  desired  to  add  a  color,  the 
natural  raffia  stitches  are  made  two  or  three  farther 
than  the  place  where  it  is  desired  to  place  the  color, 
and  these  extra  stitches  are  then  covered  over  with  the 
color. 

The  Knot  stitch  is  made  by  bringing  the  threaded 
needle  up  between  the  outer  coil  and  the  one  below  to 


152  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

the  left  of  the  stitch  which  last  bound  the  coils  together. 
Then  cross  over  this  stitch  to  the  right,  going  down 
between  the  coils  to  the  right,  then  np,  back  of  the 
crossed  stitch,  and  over  so  as  to  wrap  the  outer  coil 
again.  Then  wrap  the  two  coils,  make  the  up  stitch 
on  the  left,  cross  over,  down  between  the  two  coils  on 
the  right,  up,  back  of  the  crossed  stitch,  and  over  again. 
It  is  simply  crossing  the  long  stitch  of  the  lazy  stitch. 
With  this,  color  shows  on  two  coils  as  with  the  lazy 
stitch. 

The  Havasupai  stitch  is  the  one  most  commonly  used 
by  the  Indians.  Mr.  James  states  that  fully  four-fifths 
of  the  Indian  baskets  are  made  with  it,  and  that  both 
willow  coil  and  splints  are  used.  After  the  button  has 
been  made,  the  thread  is  passed  around  the  outer  coil, 
and  under  a  wrap  on  the  inner  coil,  an  awl,  or  pricker, 
being  used  to  make  the  opening  for  it.  Colored  splints 
are  inserted  at  this  point  and  passed  to  the  outside  of 
the  outer  coil. 

The  Open  Poma  stitch,  as  it  is  called  by  Mr.  James, 
and  which  is  very  fully  described  by  Mr.  Marten,  con- 
sists in  making  the  wraps  about  the  outer  coil  at  some 
distance  apart  and  binding  the  outer  coil  to  the  inner 
by  passing  the  thread  under  the  wraps  of  the  inner  coil. 
As  the  basket  increases  in  size,  extra  wraps  are  added 
which  are  not  fastened  to  the  inner  coil.  The  effect  of 
this  is  very  attractive,  as  the  stitches  make  a  spiral 
effect.  The  little  baskets  made  of  straw  which  contain 
figs,  are  made  in  this  way  and  can  be  used  as  a  model. 

In  all  coil  work  the  finer  the  thread,  the  finer  the 


BASKETKY  153 

work.  The  Indians  are  said  to  have  placed  over  fifty 
stitches  to  the  inch.  Some  workers  prefer  to  use  the 
raffia  dry  and  other  wet,  the  last  giving  a  firmer  basket 
but  an  uneven  one  if  it  is  allowed  to  dry  out  between 
working  hours.  The  needle  used  for  raffia  work  is 
blunt  pointed,  has  a  large  eye  and  is  known  as  Eug  or 
Tapestry  E'eedle  N'o.  18. 

Basketry  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  occupations  that 
we  have,  and  is  a  most  excellent  way  of  training  the  at- 
tention. Yet  it  may  be  discontinued  at  any  time  so  that 
the  patient  need  not  become  fatigued.  It  educates  in 
form,  color,  and  manipulation  of  hand,  and  may  be  of 
value  in  many  other  ways. 


Firth.  Cane  Basket  Work,  Part  I.  London,  1899,  T,  Up- 
cott  Gill;  65  cents.  Cane  Basket  Work,  Part  II.  Same;  65 
cents. 

The  Pine  Needle  Basket  Book;  75  cents. 

Knapp.    Raphia  and  Reed  Weaving;  50  cents. 

Priscilla  Basketry;  25  cents. 

Buck,  Martin  McCrae.  Reed  Baskets,  their  many  uses  and 
how  to  weave  them.     The  Craftsman,  XXVII,   86,  Oct.,  1914. 

Tinsley,  L.  R.     Practical  and  Artistic  Basketry;    $1.00. 

Morse.     Basket  Making;    How  to  Do  It;    25   cents. 

Hasluck.     Basket  Work.     Cassell  &  Co.;    50  cents. 

Blan chard.  The  Basketry  Book.  Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 
$2.00. 

Turner,  Luther  Weston.  The  Basket  Maker.  New  York, 
Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Co.;   75  cents. 

White,  Mary.  How  to  Make  Baskets.  New  York,  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co.;  $1.00.  More  Baskets  and  How  to  Make 
Them.     Same.     $1.00. 


CHAIR  CAmNG. 

Chairs  bottomed  with  cane  in  an  octagonal  pattern 
are  no  longer  so  common  as  thej  were  in  the  seventies, 
although  there  has  been  a  revival  of  this  form  in  recent 
years.  Woven  cane  bottoms  are  more  generally  used 
than  this  older  hand  work.  It  is  nsed  as  an  occupation 
in  some  hospitals  and  as  an  industry  for  the  blind. 
As  a  form  of  weaving  it  has  a  distinct  value. 

The  cane,  as  before  stated  (p.  133),  is  shaved  from 
the  outer  part  of  rattan.  It  comes  in  varying  widths 
and  may  be  procured  at  upholsterers'  supply  houses. 

It  must  be  thoroughly  soaked  before  being  used.  The 
chair  having  been  cleaned  of  the  old  cane,  the  worker 
sits  before  it  on  a  low  stool,  or  stands  before  the  chair, 
which  is  supported  on  a  low  bench,  or  box,  to  a  con- 
venient height.  The  centre  must  first  be  found  and  a 
length  of  cane  is  started  at  the  front  or  back,  being  kept 
in  the  hole  by  a  tapering  peg,  of  which  the  worker 
should  have  a  number.  It  is  run  straight  across  to  the 
back,  or  front,  until  all  of  the  holes  are  filled.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  use  several  holes  on  the  side  in  order 
to  fill  up  the  space,  as  the  front  of  a  chair  is  wider 
than  the  back.  The  cane  should  not  be  put  in  tightly. 
The  next  rows  are  woven  horizontally,  or  from  side 
to  side.  The  third  set  are  woven  the  same  as  the 
first,  in  the  same  holes,  and  on  top  of  them.  The 
fourth  set  is  again  woven  horizontally,  over  the  upper 

154 


CHAIE    CANING  155 

vertical  cane,  and  under  the  lower  one.  The  upper 
vertical  one  always  being  pulled  to  the  right.  We  are 
now  ready  for  the  diagonal  canes.  These  are  started 
from  the  front  left  corner  to  the  back  right  and  always 
pass  under  the  vertical  pairs  and  over  the  horizontal. 
The  remaining  diagonal  canes  run  from  the  front  right 
hand  corner  to  the  back  left,  always  passing  over  the 
vertical  pair,  and  under  the  horizontal.  The  chair  is 
finished  with  binding,  which  is  heavier  than  the  or- 
dinary cane,  and  is  laid  over  the  holes  and  held  in  posi- 
tion by  a  piece  of  finer  cane  which  is  brought  up 
through  the  hole,  over  the  binding  and  down  through 
the  hole  and  across  underneath  to  the  next  hole,  al- 
though it  may  be  done  only  at  every  other  hole  if  pre- 
ferred. The  ends  of  cane  are  twisted  twice  under  the 
next  loop  and  bent  sharply  to  keep  them  from  slipping. 


BOOKBINDDTG. 

Bookbinding  is  an  excellent  craft  for  the  mental  or 
nervous  convalescent  because  it  is  a  "developing  task," 
by  which  I  mean  that  the  work  begins  with  simple 
operations  which  gradually  become  more  difficult  and 
call  for  greater  mental  eifort.  In  the  final  process,  that 
of  making  the  casing,  much  artistic  ability  may  be 
brought  out,  yet  a  lack  of  such  ability  does  not  prohibit 
its  use.  I  have  always  thought  it  an  excellent  occupa- 
tion for  women  because  they  more  than  men  possess 
the  ability  of  doing  neat  work,  but  it  is  excellent  for 
many  other  reasons.  Probably  everyone  cares  for 
books.  WTiile  some  few  persons  may  have  but  one  or 
two  of  which  they  are  fond,  the  ability  to  care  for  them 
and  repair  them  when  worn  is  an  accomplishment  that 
all  people  would  like  to  have.  Bookbinding  is  not  at  all 
difficult  in  its  simpler  forms. 

The  history  of  bookbinding  as  given  in  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Brittanica  is  most  interesting.  Binding  or 
covers  to  protect  written  or  printed  matter  have  always 
followed  the  shapes  of  the  material  on  which  the  print- 
ing or  writing  was  done.  The  first  known  bindings  are 
Assyrian  cuneiform  tablets  which  date  from  the  eighth 
century  B.  C,  encased  in  an  outer  shell  of  the  same 
shape,  bearing  a  title.  Papyrus  rolls  were  often  pre- 
served in  rectangular  hollows  cut  in  wood.  Bark  books, 
the  next  writing  material,  which  is  still  used  by  some 

156 


BOOKBIiXDING  157 

uncultured  nations,  were  folded  back  and  forwards  on 
themselves  like  the  sides  of  a  concertina.  In  Pompeii, 
in  1875,  were  found  diptychs  (di^two,  and  ptisso=to 
fold)  of  wood  hollowed  on  the  inner  sides,  filled  with 
blackened  wax,  and  hinged  together  at  the  back  with 
leather  thongs.  An  orihon  is  a  scroll  written  on  one  side 
and  so  folded  that  the  folds  come  between  the  columns. 
These  folds  were  fastened  together  along  one  fold,  usu- 
ally by  "stabbing."  This  forms  a  link  between  the  roll 
and  the  book  as  we  know  it.  Stabbing  is  the  earliest 
method  of  binding  and  also  the  most  amateurish.  Vel- 
lum was  next  used  in  book  making,  and  in  the  fifth 
century  several  sheets,  four  or  more,  folded  once,  were 
stitched  through  the  back.  iSText  these  were  fastened 
by  the  threads  about  a  strong  strip  of  leather  or  vellum 
held  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  backs.  This  is 
the  same  method  of  binding  that  is  used  to-day  for 
flexible  backs.  It  was  soon  found  that  these  backs 
needed  protection,  so  strips  of  leather  were  fastened 
over  them.  The  vellum  leaves  curled  so  much  that 
wooden  boards  were  fastened  to  each  side,  the  loose 
ends  of  the  back  strips  being  fastened  to  the  boards 
which  hinged  upon  them,  and  the  protecting  strip 
of  leather  at  the  back  was  drawn  over  the  boards 
far  enough  to  cover  the  hinge.  This  was  the  mediae- 
val "half  binding.'  The  boards  were  usually  kept 
together  by  a  clasp  in  front.  The  next  step  was  that 
leather  was  used  to  cover  the  boards,  and  this  was  found 
to  give  opportunity  for  decoration.  They  were  first 
"blind"  stamped — that  is,  without  gold  leaf — and  the 


158  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

tools  with  which  this  was  done  were  cut  intaglio,  so  giv- 
ing a  cameo  form  to  the  impression.  Later  binding  be- 
came more  elaborate,  gold,  silver,  enamels,  silk,  em- 
broidery, and  other  materials  being  used  to  enrich  and 
decorate  the  books.  In  the  sixteenth  century  paste- 
board was  used  in  place  of  wood  for  the  sides,  thus  de- 
creasing the  weight.  Gold  tooling  on  leather  also  v/as 
invented  and  by  its  use  most  artistic  bindings  have  been 
made.  Mr,  Cobden  Sanderson,  Miss  Prideaux,  and 
Miss  McColl  are  probably  the  best  known  of  modern 
binders,  and  it  will  be  noted  that  two  of  these  three 
are  women.  Frequently  ornaments  of  different  colored 
leather  are  inlaid  in  bindings,  giving  a  very  beautiful 
effect. 

At  the  present  time  most  books  are  bound  by  ma- 
chinery, but  the  steps  are  practically  the  same  as  in 
hand  binding,  excepting  that  of  casing.    These  are : 

Eirst,  folding  the  sheets  which  form  the  signatures, 
so  called  from  the  sign  placed  on  the  front  page  of  each 
to  guide  the  binder. 

Second,  gathering  these  in  proper  order. 

Third,  sawing  the  backs  to  mark  places  for  the 
stitches. 

Fourth,  stitching  the  signatures  together. 

Fifth,  glueing  the  back. 

Sixth,  rounding  the  back.  This  gives  it  a  convexity 
which  helps  to  preserve  its  shape.  When  it  is  not  done 
the  back  of  the  book  takes  a  concave  form  and  the  cover 
does  not  fit  so  well. 


BOOKBINDING  159 

Seventh,  backing,  or  putting  on  tlie  piece  of  fabric 
which  reinforces  the  back  and  forms  the  hinge. 

Eighth,  casing,  or  putting  on  what  we  call  the  cover. 
It  is  here  that  the  difference  between  hand  binding  and 
machine  binding  is  marked.  In  the  former  the  cover 
is  made  on  the  book,  in  the  latter  it  is  made  separately 
and  placed  on  the  book.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  at  the 
present  time  only  very  large  books  or  those  bound  by 
devotees  of  the  craft  are  "bound,"  all  commercial  bind- 
ings being  "cased."  The  last  is  more  easily  done  and 
concerns  us  here  as  it  requires  much  less  skill. 

PAMPHLET  BINDING. 
By  pamphlet  binding  we  mean  the  binding  of  a  single 
signature,  no  matter  of  how  many  pages  it  may  con- 
sist. It  is  now  usually  done  by  a  machine  known  as 
a  wire  stitcher  which  holds  the  sheets  together  by  means 
of  one  or  more  pieces  of  wire  like  staples.  When  it 
is  done  by  hand,  linen  thread  is  used  (binders'  thread 
comes  in  a  number  of  sizes)  and  the  stitching  is  done 
as  follows :  Holding  the  folded  sheets  in  the  left  hand, 
the  threaded  needle  (a  'No.  1  sharp)  is  passed  through 
the  sheets  at  the  middle  of  the  fold  until  about  three 
inches  of  the  thread  remain.  The  needle  is  then 
passed  through  the  fold  in  the  opposite  direction  at  a 
point  about  half  way  between  the  centre  and  the  edge, 
and  in  the  opposite  direction  at  a  similar  point  on  the 
other  side  of  the  centre.  It  is  then  passed  through 
the  central  hole,  coming  out  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
long  stitch,  the  two  ends  then  being  tied  over  the  long 


160  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

stitcli  and  tlie  ends  trimmed  off.  It  simplifies  tlie  pro- 
cess to  make  the  first  and  second  stitches  together,  by 
one  movement,  bj  bending  the  folded  sheets  at  a  point 
half  between  where  it  is  desired  to  place  the  two. 

Stabbed  binding  is  seldom  used,  as  a  book  so  bound 
does  not  open  well.  It  is  only  nsed  when  single  sheets 
are  to  be  bonnd  or  when  an  odd  effect  is  desired.  Here 
the  sheets  are  placed  together  and  stitches  or  metal  fas- 
teners are  passed  through  them  at  the  left  side,  so  bind- 
ing them  together.  Tape  or  thongs  may  be  used,  and 
are  passed  in  and  out  and  over  the  ends  when  a  quaint 
effect  is  desired. 

SCRAP  BOOK. 

A  scrap  book  is  always  useful  and  can  be  used  by  the 
nurse  to  hold  her  collection  of  catches  and  puzzles,  or 
any  clippings  or  directions  which  she  may  wish  to  keep 
as  occupation  notes.  It  can  be  made  without  any  spe- 
cial tools  or  apparatus. 

Several  sheets  of  tough  wrapping  paper  can  usually 
be  bought  at  a  neighboring  store,  or  those  which  have 
been  used  can  be  smoothed  out  with  a  hot  iron.  These 
are  folded  to  the  size  which  it  is  desired  to  have  the 
page.  Extra  pieces  of  the  same  paper  the  length  of  the 
page  and  about  two  inches  wide  are  folded  in  half  along 
the  long  axis  and  are  placed  between  the  pages  so  that 
the  fold  coincides  with  the  fold  of  the  back  of  the  sig- 
nature. This  is  necessary  to  make  the  back  as  thick  as 
the  pages  will  be  when  the  clippings  are  pasted  in  it. 
When  the  signatures  have  all  been  prepared  we  are 


BOOKBINDING  161 

ready  to  stitch  them  together.  Sitting  at  a  table  with 
the  left  side  towards  it,  open  a  signature  in  the  middle 
and  place  the  fold  near  the  edge  of  the  table,  holding 
it  in  position  with  the  left  hand.  This  gives  a  hand  on 
each  side  of  the  fold.  With  the  right  hand  pass  a 
threaded  needle  through  the  fold  about  one  or  two 
inches  from  the  end,  pulling  it  through  with  the  left. 
With  the  left  hand  thrust  the  needle  back  again  at  a 
point  about  two  inches  from  where  the  first  stitch  was 
made.  We  are  now  ready  for  our  "fiddle  strings"  which 
may  be  of  "soft  string  or  tape  two  or  three  inches  longer 
than  the  thickness  of  the  book.  One  of  these  is  laid 
next  to  the  thread  and  the  needle  passed  back  to  the  in- 
side of  the  signature,  close  to  the  other  side  of  the  tape 
or  string,  although  when  the  latter  is  used  some  prefer 
to  pass  the  needle  through  the  same  hole  by  which  it  has 
passed  out.  The  number  of  fiddle  strings  used  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  book,  but  two  should  always  be  used. 
After  they  have  been  placed  about  three  inches  apart, 
the  thread  is  brought  out  about  one  or  two  inches  from 
the  end  of  the  signature,  another  signature  is  placed 
on  top  of  it  and  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  the  stitching 
being  done  in  the  opposite  direction.  When  the  thread 
is  finally  brought  out  above  the  starting  point  the  two 
threads  are  tied  with  a  square  knot.  We  are  now  ready 
to  stitch  another  signature  which  is  laid  on  the  second 
and  sewed  to  the  tapes.  When  the  end  is  reached  the 
thread  is  brought  dovtm  between  the  first  and  second 
signatures  around  the  stitch  holding  them  together. 
This  is  what  is  called  the  "anchor  stitch."    We  are  now 


162  occuPATiOisr   thekapt 

ready  to  sew  on  another  signature,  or  if  Tout  tliree  are 
to  be  used  it  is  fastened  off  by  making  two  half  hitches 
about  the  stitch  between  the  first  and  second  signatures. 
While  doing  this  sewing  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  sig- 
natures in  such  position  that  their  edges  will  be  even. 
This  can  be  done  more  easily  if  the  signatures  are 
clamped  together  before  being  stitched,  the  points  where 
the  needle  is  to  be  passed  marked  and  then  sawed 
through  the  folded  sheets.  This  is  best  done  with  a 
back  saw,  but  a  coping  or  other  fine  toothed  saw  can  be 
used.  While  sawing  is  a  convenience,  it  is 'not  neces- 
sary in  making  the  loosely  bound  book  on  which  we 
are  engaged. 

After  we  have  stitched  the  signatures  together,  the 
back — ^that  is,  the  folded  edges  where  we  have  done  our 
stitching — is  smeared  with  glue  and  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth three  or  four  inches  wider  than  the  back  of  the 
book,  and  from  one  to  three  inches  shorter,  is  placed 
on  it  so  that  it  is  in  the  middle  of  the  back  and  the 
projecting  edges  are  even.  More  glue  is  applied  over 
it  and  the  whole  back  is  then  covered  with  a  piece  of 
waste  paper  cut  its  exact  size.  This  prevents  the  back 
of  the  case  from  sticking  to  the  book  and  forms  a  flex- 
ible back. 

We  are  now  ready  to  make  the  case.  Two  pieces  of 
pasteboard  are  cut  which  should  be  a  half  inch  longer 
than  the  page  of  the  book  and  of  the  same  width.  A 
piece  of  waste  paper  of  the  same  length  as  the  paste- 
board and  the  width  of  the  back  is  also  made  ready  to 
line  the  back.     The  material  which  is  to  be  used  for  the 


BOOKBINDING  163 

cover  is  next  prepared.  Let  us  suppose  it  to  be  a  piece 
of  chintz.  This  is  cut  three  inches  longer  than  the 
length  of  the  pasteboard,  and  three  inches  wider  than 
twice  the  width  of  the  pasteboard  plus  the  width  of  the 
back  plus  a  half  an  inch.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
width  of  our  chintz  is  greater  than  its  length.  The 
paper  lining  of  the  back  is  now  covered  with  paste  or 
thin  glue  and  placed  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  chintz 
and  smoothed  down.  The  pasteboards  are  then  pasted 
and  placed  one  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  the  left  of 
the  paper  strip  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  it.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  have  the  top  and  bottom  edges  of  these 
three  pieces  on  the  same  straight  lines.  With  scissors 
make  a  straight  cut,  cutting  off  the  corners  of  the 
chintz  at  an  angle  of  fortj-five  degrees,  at  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  from  the  corners  of  the  pasteboard.  Paste  is 
now  applied  to  the  top  of  the  three  pieces  and  the 
upper  edge  of  the  chintz  turned  over  and  smoothed 
down.  The  lower  edge  is  pasted  do\vn  in  the  same 
way  and  then  the  two  sides.  Before  turning  over  the 
latter  the  folded  portions  are  pressed  together,  and  in 
this  way  the  mitre  is  made  neatly.  To  fasten  the  book 
in  the  case,  they  are  placed  together  and  laid  on  the 
table,  one  side  is  raised,  the  page  under  it  is  covered 
with  paste  and  the  side  is  brought  over  it  so  that  its 
edges  are  each  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  those  of  the 
page.  The  book  is  turned  over  and  the  other  side  is 
treated  in  the  same  way.  With  the  finger-nail  press 
down  the  chintz  along  the  edge  of  the  back.  It  is  this 
part  that  forms  the  hinge.     The  book  is  now  ready  to 


164  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

be  placed  under  some  form  of  pressure  for  twenty-four 
hours  to  dry,  although  a  longer  period  is  better  to  allow 
proper  "seasoning." 

If  paper  is  used  for  covering,  it  should  be  pasted 
all  over  and  the  back  lining  and  pasteboard  sides  placed 
on  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  select  a  paper  of  tough 
quality.  Some  of  the  better  wall  papers  are  excellent. 
If  binders'  muslin  is  used  it  cannot  be  pasted,  but  must 
be  glued.  Experience  alone  can  tell  the  proper  consis- 
tency of  the  glue.  If  it  is  too  thick  we  cannot  work 
rapidly  enough,  and  if  too  thin  the  muslin  will  blister 
or  lose  its  gloss. 

Press  boards  are  boards  with  a  metal  edge  projecting 
about  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  which  is  placed  so  as  to 
press  in  the  muslin  between  the  back  and  the  side,  so 
as  to  form  a  neat  looking  hinge.  They  are  only  neces- 
sary when  binding  is  to  be  taken  up  extensively.  Un- 
der the  same  circumstances  a  sewing  bench  is  a  great 
convenience,  and  is  not  expensive.  If  a  scrap  book  is 
made  as  above  directed  and  examination  is  made  of  the 
various  books  which  pass  under  the  nurse's  hands  she 
will  have  sufficient  knowledge  to  repair  books  and  make 
loose  bindings.  If  she  desires  to  develop  the  craft  it 
will  be  necessary  to  take  some  lessons  or  to  study  some 
of  the  many  books  on  the  subject.  To  one  who  "is 
handy  at  picking  up  things"  a  visit  to  a  bindery  will  be 
helpful. 

References : 

Bailey,  H.  T.     Booklet  Making;    75  cents. 

Bean,  Florence  0.     Bookbinding  for  Beginners;    $1.25. 


BOOKBINDING  165 

Cockerell,  Douglas.  Bookbinding  and  the  Care  of  Books. 
New  York,  Appleton;   $1.25. 

Hasluck.     Bookbinding;    50  cents. 

Freeman,  S.  T.  A  Syllabus  of  Elementary  Bookbinding 
(Teachers'  College,  Columbia) ;   30  cents. 


COLLECTING. 

The  word  collecting  may  bring  up  different  emotions 
in  different  individuals  according  as  to  what  their  con- 
ception of  the  word  may  be.  To  the  housewife-mother 
who  only  knows  that  her  boy's  pockets  bulge  with  mis- 
cellaneous objects  whose  value  she  cannot  appreciate, 
and  that  each  dusting  day  she  is  obliged  to  clear  up  a 
lot  of  "truck,"  the  word  collecting  brings  up  disgust 
or  anger.  To  the  experienced  person  who  knows  that 
each  object  has  its  story  of  how  it  was  acquired,  where 
it  was  made,  by  what  sort  of  people,  etc.,  the  word  can 
only  bring  up  enthusiasm  or  joy.  The  mere  gathering 
together  of  articles  is  not  collecting  in  its  higher  mean- 
ing, and  such  an  occupation  should  be  discouraged,  even 
in  millionaires.  In  collecting,  an  object  should  serve  as 
a  text  or  as  a  focus  for  all  of  the  knowledge  that  it  is 
possible  to  associate  about  it.  It  is  only  then  that  col- 
lecting becomes  of  value.  The  habit  of  investigation 
which  can  be  inculcated  in  this  way  will  broaden  the  in- 
dividual's intellectual  horizon  and  increase  his  mental 
powers. 

The  choice  of  what  is  to  be  collected  is  comparatively 
immaterial.  Stones,  flowers,  leaves,  stamps,  cups, 
plates,  pitchers,  bottles,  watches,  clocks,  book  plates, 
dolls,  firebacks,  books,  engravings,  pictures,  etc.,  have 
all  been  collected,  and  have  been  the  source  of  great 
pleasure  and  profit  to  the  collector  and  also  to  those 

166 


COLLECTING-  167 

who  have  been  privileged  to  go  over  such  collections, 
especially  when  the  owner  has  unbosomed  himself  and 
told  all  that  there  was  to  tell  about  the  various  pieces. 

The  choice  of  a  collection  will  depend  on  the  patient's 
taste,  what  arouses  his  interest,  the  state  of  his  pocket- 
book,  and  also  on  the  interest  and  co-operation  of  the 
nurse,  who  can  do  everything  to  stimulate  or  discour- 
age the  patient. 

Stamp  Collecting-. — I  have  always  recommended  stamp 
collecting  to  nurses  as  a  hobby  for  several  reasons. 
First,  it  is  compact  and  will  not  take  up  much  room, 
and  if  she  does  private  work  she  will  necessarily  have 
to  live  much  in  her  trunk.  Second,  it  is  probably  the 
most  interesting  form  of  collecting  because  so  much  of 
romance,  history,  geography,  etc.,  is  associated  with 
these  bits  of  paper.  One  of  the  most  delightful  talks 
I  ever  heard  was  by  Mr.  W.  Dwight  Burroughs,^  who 
told  us  stories  about  various  stamps  which  he  showed. 
Most  of  these  stories  were  history  and  therefore  more 
interesting.  Stamp  collecting  teaches  us  to  observe 
things  closely  and  detect  small  differences  in  them.  It 
also  teaches  us  to  be  neat,  orderly  and  systematic.  It 
has  the  further  advantage  of  being  profitable  if  persisted 
in  long  enough,  as  almost  all  stamps  increase  in  value 
as  their  age  increases. 

A  number  of  books  are  published  which  give  direc- 
tions to  beginners  in  stamp  collecting,  and  it  is  well 

1  Burroughs,  W.  Dwight.  The  "Wonderland  of  Stamps.  F. 
A.  Stokes  Co.;  $1.50.  This  is  written  especially  for  children, 
but  is  interesting  even  to  experienced  collectors. 


168  OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 

to  get  one  of  these.  An  hour  or  so  with  an  experienced 
collector  will  probably  be  quite  as  profitable,  but  it  is 
well  to  have  a  book  for  reference.  It  is  also  well  to 
subscribe  to  a  special  periodical  or  one  which  contains 
a  philatelic  department,  as  in  this  way  only  can  one 
keep  up  with  the  changes,  new  issues,  etc.,  which  occur. 
Certain  stamp  dealers  sell  a  small  collection  with  album 
and  other  necessary  things,  which  may  be  a  good  way 
of  beginning.  It  is  much  more  sporting,  however,  to 
acquire  one's  stamps  otherwise  than  by  purchase. 
Stealing  is,  of  course,  barred,  but  one  can  ask  for  the 
stamp  on  a  letter  or  package  and  usually  get  it.  The 
uncertainty  of  the  reply  adds  to  the  sportiveness  of  the 
occupation.  Sometimes  we  may  find  a  person  with  a 
foreign  correspondence  who  is  willing  to  save  the  stamps 
for  us,  and  we  may  have  a  delightful  time  sorting  over 
a  packet  of  these.  A  mass  of  old  letters  may  prove  to 
be  a  gold  mine  of  interesting  specimens.  If  none  of 
these  sources  are  available  to  the  young  collectors,  I 
would  advise  the  purchase  of  one  of  the  "common" 
packets  issued  by  dealers.  By  "common"  we  mean 
stamps  which  are  not  "rare"  and  Avhich  exist  in  such 
quantities  that  they  have  little  value.  They  are  usually 
the  low  values  of  a  country  and  have  been  in  use  for 
some  time,  like  the  present  two-cent  stamp  of  the  United 
States,  which  has  been  in  use  since  1909.  If  we  had 
a  quantity  of  these  stamps  to  look  over  we  would  find 
many  differences  in  shade,  that  some  were  marked  two 
CENTS  and  other  2  cents  2.  If  some  of  the  stamps  had 
been  collected  since  December,  1914,  we  would  find  that 


COLLECTING  169 

the  perforations  of  these  are  larger  and  there  are  fewer 
of  them.  Still  others  have  no  perforation,  others  are 
perforated  only  at  the  sides,  others  only  at  the  ends, 
others  have  only  two  long  and  broad  perforations  at 
the  side.  An  expert  could  point  out  many  other  points, 
such  as  a  difference  in  watermarks,  so  that  even  a  com- 
mon two-cent  stamp  has  interest.  An  additional  fact 
is  that  it  bears  the  likeness  of  Washington,  and  it  will 
be  found  that  the  stamp  of  a  country  which  is  in  most 
common  use  always  bears  the  likeness  of  its  most  popu- 
lar hero.  A  stamp  of  Brazil,  besides  bearing  the  smal- 
lest engraved  portrait  of  Washington,  has  portraits  of 
other  Pan-American  heroes,  such  as  Bolivar,  O'Hig- 
gins,  Jose  Bonifacio,  Hidalgo  and  San  Martin. 

A  stamp  known  as  the  O'Connell  stamp  was  issued 
by  one  O'Connell,  Postmaster  of  l^ew  Brunswick,  bear- 
ing his  likeness,  and  was  promptly  suppressed  because 
it  did  not  bear  the  likeness  of  Queen  Victoria.  Copies 
of  this  stamp  are  so  rare  that  they  are  valued  at  one 
hundred  and  iifty  dollars.  A  similar  stamp  was  issued 
during  the  Boer  War  (1903)  and  bears  the  likeness  of 
Sir  Baden  Powell,  who  thereby  incurred  the  displeas- 
ure of  his  sovereign. 

A  rare  stamp  on  the  original  cover  (envelope)  has  a 
greater  value  than  one  detached  because  then  there  can 
be  little  question  as  to  its  genuineness,  but  ordinary 
stamps  are  soaked  from  the  paper  on  which  they  have 
been  placed.  This  in  itself  may  prove  a  pleasant  and 
restful  occupation.  Some  stamps  are  printed  with  ink 
which  dissolves  in  water  and  so  spoils  the  stamp,  such 


170  OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 

as  the  TJ:nited  States  Postage  Dues.  Wettmg  does  no 
stamp  any  good,  and  I  liave  found  tliat  wlien  a  stamp 
is  on  thick  or  ordinary  paper  the  best  plan  is  to  float 
it  on  water  face  up.  At  first  the  paper  will  curl  up, 
but  as  the  different  strata  of  the  paper  absorb  water  it 
will  lie  flat  and  later  may  curl  down.  When  lying  flat 
it  will  usually  be  found  that  the  gum  is  sufficiently 
moist  to  slip  off  the  stamp,  which  is  then  laid  face  down 
to  dry.  Tweezers,  especially  those  with  broad  ends 
made  for  the  purpose,  are  of  great  assistance  in 
handling  the  stamps.  If  the  paper  on  the  back  of  the 
stamp  is  thin,  such  as  Japanese  paper,  it  had  better  be 
laid  back  down  on  wet  blotting  paper.  The  object  is 
to  keep  some  of  the  original  gum("o.g.")  on  the  stamp, 
as  it  is  thereby  more  perfect.  The  majority  of  stamp 
dealers  will  buy  even  ordinary  stamps  in  quantities  if 
they  are  in  good  condition,  so  that  practically  every 
stamp  has  some  value.  Trimming  with  scissors  renders 
a  stamp  valueless. 

Some  collectors  specialize  in  the  stamps  of  one  coun- 
try, of  a  certain  value,  etc.,  but  it  is  less  expensive  to 
have  a  general  collection.  The  higher  values,  being 
more  rare,  can  usually  only  be  acquired  by  purchase; 
but  I  have  sometimes  been  so  fortunate  as  to  receive  a 
gift  of  a  lot  of  stamps  containing  some  that  I  had  long 
given  up  hope  of  acquiring  except  by  purchase.  The 
collector  will  find  that  he  has  a  host  of  friends  who  are 
willing  to  save  stamps  for  him  if  he  only  lets  them 
know  that  he  has  this  hobby. 

Book  collecting  may  be  made  very  entertaining  by 


COLLECTING  171 

frequenting  old  book  stores  or  auctions.  For  those  who 
cannot  attend  book  sales  the  dealers  have  a  plan  by 
which  they  receive  bids  sent  by  mail.  I  have  found 
this  a  delightful  occupation.  The  sales  catalogues  are 
accurate  in  giving  the  condition  of  the  book,  whether 
it  is  shaken,  broken,  foxed,  etc.,  and  also  gives  infor- 
mation as  to  editions,  etc.,  which  is  of  value  to  the  book 
lover.  I  have  always  found  these  dealers  honorable  in 
all  their  dealings,  at  times  giving  me  a  book  at  a  lower 
price  than  I  have  bid,  and  I  have  never  had  to  com- 
plain that  their  description  of  a  book  was  inaccurate. 
By  buying  books  in  this  way  one  can  build  up  a  library 
at  comparatively  small  cost.  There  is  usually  a  charge, 
subscription,  so  to  speak,  for  the  sales  catalogues,  but 
they  are  quite  worth  their  cost  to  the  book  lover.  I  will 
be  glad  to  give  the  names  of  these  dealers  to  anyone 
interested. 

It  is  possible  to  extend  our  list  of  collectible  objects 
to  great  length,  but  it  would  be  useless.  'No  matter  what 
it  is  that  excites  our  patient's  interest,  if  he  can  be  in- 
duced to  study  about  it  and  associated  subjects,  he 
should  be  encouraged  to  continue  collecting. 

The  value  of  a  hobby  to  anyone  as  a  safety-valve  for 
surcharged  emotions  is  so  great  that  it  cannot  be  esti- 
mated. 

References : 

Armstrong,  Douglas  H.  Boys'  Book  of  Stamp  Collecting. 
F.  A.  Stokes,  $1.75. 

Barber,  Dr.  Edwin  Atlee  (Curator  of  a  Museum)  Amer- 
ican Glassware;   Old  and  New. 


172  OCCUPATIOiSr    thekapt 

Burgess,  F.  W.  (Collectors'  Series).  Chats  on  Household 
Curios;  $2,00;  94  illustrations,  drawings  and  photographs. 
Describes  interesting  mementos  of  past  generations  with  their 
original  uses — among  them  fireirons  and  firebacks,  rush 
lights,  leather  bottles,  scratchbacks,  spinning-wheels,  clocks, 
watches,  chests,  toys,  relics  of  sport,  etc.  Besides  of  interest 
to  collectors,  throws  much  light  on  the  domestic  habits  of 
our  ancestors. 

Burgess,  F.  W.  (Collectors'  Series).  Chats  on  Old  Copper 
and  Brass;  $2.00.  Informal  style;  covers  fascinating  field. 
Objects  of  use  and  ornament  made  from  copper,  its  alloys, 
brass  and  bronze.  The  earlier  prehistoric  and  Greek  or 
Roman  examples  described  are  largely  in  museums,  but  a 
wealth  of  curios  and  artistic  pieces  can  be  secured  by  the 
most  modest  collector  who  heeds  the  author's  suggestions. 
Complete  with  index  and  glossary. 

Carleton,  Emma.  All  About  Bottles.  The  House  Beauti- 
ful, X,  101;  July,  1901. 

Church,  Margaret,  Some  Old  Bed  Coverings  (Quilting). 
The  House  Beautiful,  X,  353;  November,  1901, 

Conway,  Sir  Martin  (late  Slade  Prof.  Fine  Arts,  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge).  The  Sport  of  Collecting;  ?2.00.  By  an 
enthusiast  of  world-wide  experience.  Old  Masters,  Italy; 
Pottery  (and  Mountain  Climbing)  Peru;  Egypt,  Japan,  India, 
Thibet.  Dr.  Bode,  famous  art  critic,  vouches  for  authenticity 
of  information.     A  most  interesting  book, 

Blake,  J,  P.  &  A.  E.  Reveirs-Hopkins.  Little  Books  About 
Old  Furniture;  each,  $1.00.  (Fully  illustrated,  Frederick  A. 
Stokes  Co.) 

Kunz,  Geo.  Frederick.  The  Curious  Lore  of  Precious 
Stones.     J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Phila.,  1914;    |o.OO. 

Melville,  Fred  J.  All  About  Postage  Stamps.  Lippincott; 
$1.50,  A  Penny  All  the  "Way.  Mekeel-Severn-Wylie  Co.;  12 
cents. 

Moore,  N.  Hudson.  The  Old  Furniture  Book.  P.  A.  Stokes 
Co.,  1903;  $2.00.  The  Old  China  Book.  F.  A.  Stokes  Co., 
1903;    12.00, 

Poole,  B.  W.  H.  Beginner's  Philately  Guide.  Boston, 
Mekeel-Severn-Wylie  Co.;  25  cents. 


COLLECTING  173 

Power,  Eustace  B.  The  General  Issues  of  United  States 
Stamps,  etc.    New  York,  1909;   Stanley  Gibbons,  Inc. 

Starr,  Mrs.  Laura  B.     The  Doll  Book. 

Whitcomb,  Charlotte.  Heirlooms  and  Antiquities  (China). 
The  House  Beautiful,  X,  271;  October,  1901. 


GARDENING. 

"When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span 
Which  vsras  then  the  gentleman." 

If  this  old  rlijTne  be  considered  an  authority,  then 
gardening  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  crafts.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  most  delightful.  Some  persons  have  the  idea  that 
it  can  only  he  followed  out  of  doors  during  a  few 
months  of  the  year.  But  as  soon  as  he  has  gotten  over 
the  Christmas  holidays  the  true  gardener  is  hard  at 
work  at  his  garden — on  paper — and  is  laying  out  rows 
of  bulbs  and  plants  and  vegetables.  A  seed  catalogue 
is  more  absorbing  than  a  best  seller,  and  the  joy  of 
anticipation  is  his  to  the  utmost.  While  the  patient 
may  not  be  brought  up  to  quite  such  heights  as  these, 
he  may  be  given  a  start  and  the  right  way  pointed  out 
to  him. 

Many  hospitals  have  a  part  of  their  grounds  set  apart 
for  patients'  gardens  where  flowers  to  beautify  the 
wards  and  rooms,  and  vegetables  to  add  to  the  menu 
are  raised  with  much  enjoyment.  Who  does  not  eat 
radishes  fresh  from  the  garden  with  a  much  greater 
zest  than  those  which  have  come  from  market  ?  There 
is  also  great  pleasure  in  watching  plants  come  from, 
seed  and  grow  and  mature.  There  recently  appeared  in 
the  Garden  Magazine  a  delightful  story^  which  told 

1  The  Garden  Doctor.  The  Garden  Magazine,  XVII,  p.  11; 
February,  1913. 

174 


GARDENING  175 

how  a  nervous  invalid  gained  strength  and  an  interest 
in  life  bj  means  of  gardening. 

We  may  start  very  simply  by  planting  a  few  seeds 
in  a  pot.  In  winter  the  orange  and  grape  fruit  seeds 
may  be  sown  thickly  and  the  rich  green  of  the  leaves 
makes  an  attractive  centre-piece.  After  the  plants  have 
grown  to  some  size,  the  best  may  be  selected  and  grown 
singly  in  pots.  By  this  time  the  patient's  interest  will 
probably  be  aroused  and  geranium  or  begonia  cuttings 
may  be  potted.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  induced 
to  read  up  on  the  subject  and  plan  a  modest  garden  for 
the  summer.  If  the  last  is  impossible,  the  pot  growing 
can  still  be  continued.  Much  pleasure  may  be  derived 
from  a  pot  of  house  ivy.  Making  a  trellis  and  training 
the  ivy  over  it  may  prove  very  interesting. 

Should  the  outdoor  garden  be  possible  m.uch  pleasure 
may  be  derived  from  it.  There  are  many  books  on  the 
subject  which  may  be  read  with  profit. 

As  a  side  issue,  so  to  speak,  to  the  garden  work,  the 
rose  petals  may  be  saved,  after  the  roses  have  been  cut 
and  beautified  the  home,  and  utilized  in  a  number  of 
delightful  ways,  such  as,  a  sweet  jar,  rose  syrup, 
candied  rose  petals,  sandwiches,  lozenges,  etc. 

Two  writers  in  the  Woman  s  Home  Com^panion  for 
June,  1913 — Henrietta  D.  Grauel  and  Caroline  B. 
King — give  a  number  of  recipes  under  the  title  of  How 
to  Use  the  June  Eoses,  which  are  most  interesting,  as 
a  number  are  taken  from  old  cook  books.  From  this 
we  learn  that  the  way  to  make  a  conserve  of  rose  petals 
is  to  line  "a  jar  with  alternate  layers  of  rose  petals  and 


176  OCCUPATION    THEEAPT 

sugar  until  it  is  filled.  Then  it  is  tightly  covered  with 
heavy  paper  and  set  away  for  three  months.  At  the 
end  of  that  time  a  rich  and  delicate  conserve  has 
formed,  which  is  to  be  served  with  syllabubs  or  whipped 
cream."  Or  "if  you  would  have  rose  lozenges,  boyl 
your  sugar  to  sugar  again,  and  then  put  in  your  red 
roses  beat  to  a  pulp,  pour  in  pye  plates  and  cut  in  what 
form  you  please." 

TO  MAKE  A  SWEET  JAR. 

Select  a  jar  and  in  the  bottom  place  a  layer  of  cotton 
batting  wet  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  bergamot  and 
five  drops  of  oil  of  rose  geranium.  This  will  cost  ten 
cents  at  any  druggist's. 

Have  ready  a  quart  of  dried  rose  leaves ;  put  half  of 
them  in  the  jar  on  top  of  the  cotton.  Mix  in  a  few 
cloves,  a  blade  of  mace  crumpled  fine,  a  strip  of  cinna- 
mon broken  in  bits,  a  nutmeg  crushed  but  not  grated. 
Add  more  of  the  rose  leaves  and  on  them  sprinkle  three 
drops  of  oil  of  peppermint.  In  this  you  may  put  a 
little  powdered  orris  root;  its  odor  resembles  violets. 
Or,  if  you  prefer  something  stronger,  use  powdered 
sandalwood. 

This  completes  the  aromatic  jar;  keep  it  tightly  shut 
for  three  weeks,  to  ripen  and  combine  the  odor.  After 
this  open  the  jar  for  a  few  moments  and  it  will  diffuse 
a  rare  fragrance. 

Lack  of  space  prevents  reproducing  all  of  these  in- 
teresting recipes,  but  they  can  easily  be  obtained  from 
the  above  or  probably  from  other  books  in  the  nearest 


GAEDENING  177 

public  library.  In  another  number  of  the  Woman's 
Home  Companion,  Paul  P.  Poster  tells  about  Sweet 
Lavender  and  how  to  make  sachets.  Lavender  grows 
freely  in  California  and  in  some  of  the  Southern  States, 
and  might  be  tried  anywhere.  I  have  never  succeeded 
in  growing  it  from  seed  in  Maryland,  but  will  keep  on 
trying,  which,  by  the  way,  is  a  good  rule  for  gardeners 
to  follow.  It  is  said  to  grow  better  from  cuttings  than 
from  seed. 
References : 

Lounsberry,  Alice.  The  Garden  Book  for  Young  People. 
New  York,  1908,  F.  A.  Stokes  Co.;   $1.50. 

Barnes,  Parker  Thayer.  Suburban  Garden  Guide.  Mac- 
millan,  50  cents. 

Bowles,  B.  A.  My  Garden  in  Summer.  Dodge  Publishing 
Co. 

Cable,  Geo.  W.    The  Amateur  Garden.     Scribner's;   $1.50. 

Ely,  Helena  Rutherford.  A  Woman's  Hardy  Garden.  Mac- 
millan.     Another   Hardy  Garden   Book.     Macmillan. 

Williams.     Gardens  and  Their  Meaning. 

Wright,  Mabel  Osgood.  The  Garden  of  a  Commuter's  Wife. 
Grossett  &  Dunlap. 


NATURE  STUDY. 

Even  if  our  patient  does  not  care  for  gardening,  he 
may  be  induced  to  take  an  interest  in  nature  study  by 
tlie  nurse  pointing  out  tbe  interesting  things  which 
may  be  seen  from  a  window  or  during  a  ramble.  Birds, 
trees,  wild  flowers,  weeds,  grasses,  the  soil,  and  the  stars 
are  all  treated  in  popular  manuals,  and  if  the  nurse 
knows  but  a  little  of  all  of  these  it  may  be  enough  to 
excite  the  interest  of  her  patient  and  stimulate  a  desire 
for  more.  So  many  things  may  be  observed  during  a 
walk  by  eyes  that  see.  Even  in  city  streets  there  are 
sparrows,  a  few  trees,  and  window-boxes,  and  prac- 
tically all  cities  have  parks.  Under  such  circumstances 
a  game  might  be  played  and  nurse  and  patient  match 
wits  to  see  who  can  observe  the  greatest  number  of  a 
certain  kind  of  objects. 

References : 

"Wings  and  Stings. 

Bailey,  L.  H.     Lessons  with  Plants. 

Chapman.     Bird  Studies  with  a  Camera. 

Dana.     How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers.     Scribner;    $2.00. 

Going.  Field,  Forest  and  Wayside  Flowers.  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co. 

Holtz,  Frederick  L.     Nature  Study.     Scribner. 

Irving,  H.     How  to  Know  the  Trees. 

Parsons.     How  to  Know  the  Ferns.     Scribner;   $1.50. 

Walton,  Geo.  L.,  M.  D.  The  Flower  Finder.  Lippincott, 
pp.  394;  $2.00.  A  manual  for  the  amateur,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  color.  Botanical  terms  and  classification  reserved 
chiefly  for  the  glossary. 

1Y8 


STElTCmiNG  AND  BLOCK  PRINTING. 

STENCILLING. 

Stencilling  was  much  in  vogue  at  one  time,  and,  like 
manj  other  occupations  which  have  become  fads,  its 
popularity  brought  it  into  disrepute.  As  someone  has 
aptly  said,  there  is  no  more  effective  decoration  when 
properly  used,  and  there  is  no  more  mistaken  method 
when  crudely  handled.  So  much  work  of  poor  design 
was  circulated  that  a  prejudice  was  formed  against  it. 
The  comparative  ease  with  which  stencilling  may  be 
done  was  responsible  for  many  evidences  of  bad  taste. 
Probably  many  persons  have  never  seen  a  good  piece 
of  stencilling.  In  this  work  color  harmony  is  impor- 
tant, probably  more  so  than  good  design.  On  account 
of  the  commercial  exploiting  of  stencilling  many  very 
poor  designs  have  been  placed  on  the  market,  and  it  is 
usually  much  easier,  after  having  obtained  a  good  de- 
sign, to  make  one's  own  stencil  than  to  search  for  a 
good  one  at  an  art  store.  As  to  the  origin  of  stencil 
making  we  know  nothing.  Probably  all  of  us  have 
seen  stencils  of  one  form  or  another,  but  for  those  who 
have  not,  it  may  be  said  that  "a  stencil  is  a  thin  sheet 
or  plate,  as  of  paper  or  metal,  in  which  a  pattern  is 
cut  through  with  interrupted  lines  or  spaces  or  with 
dots,  used  by  placing  it  on  a  surface  and  laying  on  a 
color  through  the  open   spaces,    as   with   a  brush   or 

179 


180  OCCTJPATION    THERAPY 

sponge."  (Standard  Dictionary.)  The  most  durable 
are  made  of  very  thin  brass  or  copper,  and  are  used 
ahnost  entirely  to  mark  boxes,  barrels,  etc.,  with  trade- 
marks or  lettering  of  some  sort.  Heavy  paper  which 
has  been  soaked  with  linseed  oil  and  then  dried  is  what 
is  generally  sold  and  used  for  the  stencils  which  we 
make.  The  oil  makes  the  paper  tough  and  impervious 
to  the  color  which  is  used.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  obtain 
stencil  paper  we  can  use  any  ordinary  thick  paper,  and 
after  we  have  cut  our  stencil,  varnish  or  shellac  it,  or, 
which  is  not  so  good,  coat  it  with  paraffin.  Stencils 
must  be  somewhat  flexible  so  as  to  conform  to  irregular 
surfaces.  In  making  a  stencil  the  design  is  drawn  on 
paper  and  bands  which  hold  the  different  parts  together 
are  marked.  The  desigTi  is  then  cut  with  a  sharp- 
pointed  knife,  a  matt  knife  frequently  being  used.  We 
are  now  ready  to  put  the  design  on  the  material.  Al- 
most any  smooth  material  can  be  used.  To  stencil 
upon  it,  it  is  preferable  to  put  a  piece  of  blotting  paper 
on  a  board,  place  the  material  on  this  and  fasten  the 
stencil  to  it  with  thumb  tacks.  Ordinary  artist's  tube 
colors  or  other  thick  paint  is  used  and  is  applied  with 
a  round,  short-bristled  brush  which  is  made  for  the 
purpose.  Other  stiff  brushes  will  do  or  long  bristle 
brushes  can  be  cut  off.  The  color  is  rubbed  into  the  ma- 
terial, care  being  taken  not  to  smear  it  into  spaces  where 
it  does  not  belong.  Some  very  handsome  scarfs,  table 
covers,  curtains,  etc.,  have  been  made  in  this  way,  and 
walls,  screens  or  other  pieces  of  furniture  of  a  certain 
character  may  be  beautified  by  a  stencilled  design.     It 


STElSrCILLING  AND  BLOCK  PRINTING  181 

is  easily  conceivable  that  a  patient  may  be  interested 
in  the  decoration  of  the  walls  of  a  room  or  its  hangings 
by  this  means.  Some  very  attractive  dens  and  nurseries 
have  been  made,  chiefly  with  the  aid  of  stencils.  It  is 
an  occupation  which  trains  in  color  sense  and  design  as 
well  as  accuracy  in  the  use  of  eye  and  hand.  The 
slight  equipment  necessary  and  the  ease  with  which 
such  can  be  procured  is  a  strong  point  in  its  favor. 

BLOCK  PRINTING. 

This  is  a  more  difficult,  but  far  more  fascinating 
craft  than  stencilling.  It  is  really  a  craft,  hence  is 
not  likely  to  be  lightly  taken  up  as  an  amusement.  The 
patient  should  have  some  artistic  ability  and  patience 
enough  to  carry  out  the  somewhat  tedious  process  re- 
quired. Almost  any  smooth  material  can  be  used  ex- 
cept rich  silk  and  satin.  The  material  must  be  more 
smooth  than  for  stencilling.  In  choosing  our  design  it 
should  be  remembered  that  we  have  a  repeat  pattern  to 
make,  or  if  all  the  material  is  covered,  what  is  gener- 
ally known  as  a  diaper  pattern. 

Symmetrical  designs  are  generally  chosen.  Various 
kinds  of  wood  are  used,  but  a  close-grained  wood  is  best, 
such  as  cherry,  dogwood,  or  boxwood.  If  these  cannot 
be  secured,  white  pine  can  be  used.  If  the  latter,  the 
side  of  the  grain  is  used,  if  the  former  it  is  better  to 
use  the  end  of  the  grain. 

The  design  is  drawn  on  or  transferred  to  the  block 
and  outlined  with  a  sharp  knife  or  graver.  The  block 
can  be  made  more  easily  and  better  with  wood  en- 


182  OCCUPATIOIT    THEEAPT 

graver's  tools  tlian  with  any  others.  These  can  he  se- 
cured from  dealers  in  printers'  supplies.  All  wood  out- 
side of  the  design  is  cut  away  to  a  sufficient  depth  to 
keep  it  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  material, 
usually  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  although  it  may  be 
necessary  to  cut  away  more  near  the  edges  of  the  block. 
The  material  is  fastened  to  a  board  over  which  has 
been  placed  blotting  paper  by  means  of  thumb  tacks. 
The  positions  where  the  block  is  to  be  printed  can  be 
indicated  by  pins.  A  coating  of  paint  is  put  on  the 
block  which  is  inverted  and  placed  on  the  material.  It 
is  held  firmly  and  struck  a  sharp  blow  with  a  mallet  or 
hammer.  The  block  is  then  lifted  away,  and  if  we  have 
used  a  proper  amount  of  paint  there  should  be  a  clean 
print  of  it  on  the  material.  Practice  only  can  deter- 
mine the  proper  amount  of  paint  to  put  on  the  block. 
This  can  be  better  done,  however,  by  the  use  of  a  color 
pad,  which  is  made  by  stretching  about  a  dozen  pieces 
of  cheesecloth,  or  coarse  muslin,  over  a  block  of  wood 
larger  than  the  printing  block  and  securing  them  by 
tacks  around  the  edges,  although  they  may  be  sewn  to- 
gether and  laid  on  a  plate.  The  paint,  or  dye,  is  spread 
on  the  pad  with  a  brush  until  it  is  saturated.  Press  the 
wood  block  on  this  and  wipe  off  the  color,  doing  this 
several  times  or  until  the  wood  is  saturated,  then  again 
press  the  wood  block  on  the  pad  and  it  will  be  found 
to  have  on  it  a  thin  coating  of  color.  It  is  then  ready 
for  printing.  In  all  cases  try  on  a  sample  of  the  fabric 
before  attempting  to  print  on  the  piece.  In  printing  on 
thin  fabrics,  firm,  even  pressure  will  give  as  satisfac- 


STENCILLING  AND  BLOCK  PRINTING  183 

tory  an  impression  as  will  tapping  with  a  mallet  or 
hammer.  The  latter  is  necessary  in  printing  on  rougher 
fabrics.  It  is  impossible  to  print  on  fabric  with  a  pile, 
such  as  velvet.  When  dyes  are  used  they  should  be 
in  concentrated  solution. 

Some  combinations  of  stencilling  and  wood  block 
printing  are  very  effective.  One  great  advantage  of  the 
latter  over  the  former  is  that  the  continuity  of  the 
design  is  not  interrupted. 

If  it  is  not  convenient  to  procure  wood  engravers' 
tools  the  block  may  be  made  in  other  ways.  The  design 
may  be  sawed  from  thin  wood  with  a  scroll  saw  and  the 
pieces  glued  on  a  block  of  wood  which  has  been  marked 
with  the  same  design,  so  that  the  pieces  will  be  placed 
on  it  in  their  proper  position. 

Another  method  which  I  have  never  seen  tried,  but 
which  I  believe  can  be  used,  is  one  used  by  printers  in 
emergencies  where  it  is  necessary  to  have  large  type  or 
designs  in  a  short  time.  This  consists  in  glueing  a 
piece  of  plain-faced  linoleum  (one  which  has  not  had 
paint  applied  to  its  surface)  to  a  piece  of  wood.  The 
design  is  drawn  on  this  and  is  easily  outlined  and  the 
background  cut  away  with  a  sharp  knife.  This  is  more 
easily  made  than  a  wood  block,  but  is  probably  not  so 
durable. 

As  this  is  an  occupation  which  requires  some  skill  in 
manipulation,  it  should  not  be  taken  up  until  the  pa- 
tient has  shown  evidence  of  having  such,  or  until  he  has 
learned  manual  dexterity  by  some  other  means.  It  is 
preferable  to  precede  block  printing  by  a  course  of 


184  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

stencilling,  unless  the  patient  is  already  familiar  with 
the  latter. 

There  is  an  excellent  article  on  stencilling  and  block 
printing  in  the  Good  Housekeeping  Home  Handicraft 
Book. 


PLASTIC  WORK. 

The  creative  instinct  which  is  in  all  and  which  in 
childhood  causes  us  to  make  mud  pies,  still  exists 
despite  repression,  and  we  would  probably  enjoy  clay 
modelling  as  a  diversion  if  we  did  not  feel  that  other 
things  give  us  and  our  world  more  pleasure.  There  is, 
however,  an  artistic  touch  in  many  crude  things,  and 
we  may  be  able  to  develop  such  in  ourselves  or  others. 
Certainly  the  interest  which  such  an  art  creates  in 
stimulating  us  to  observe  form  may  be  used  to  an  ad- 
vantage in  the  mentally  sick  who  need  diversion  and 
training.  Clay  modelling  is  truly  an  art,  and  while  our 
patient  may  not  accomplish  anything  more  than  diver- 
sion from  unhealthy  thoughts,  or  an  interest  in  the 
study  of  sculpture,  we  should  feel  quite  satisfied  with 
such  result. 

Clay  modelling  has  one  great  advantage,  its  cheap- 
ness. The  clay  may  be  procured  in  several  colors  at 
art  stores  for  about  six  cents  a  pound,  and  only  requires 
mixing  with  water  to  be  ready  for  use.  The  modelling 
tools  are  of  wood,  are  quite  inexpensive,  and  substitutes 
can  be  whittled  with  a  knife.  The  clay  also  can  be 
bought  mixed  with  oil  so  that  it  does  not  dry  and  crum- 
ble. If  the  clay  dough  is  mixed  with  water  it  must  be 
kept  moist  by  means  of  wet  cloths  wrapped  about  it. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  artistic  value  of  even  crude 
things,  I  might  instance  a  Banko  teapot  which  was 
bought  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876.    It  is  of 

185 


186  OCCUPATION    THEKAPT 

brown  earthenware  with  a  "chimney"  in  the  middle; 
all  over  it  are  the  finger  marks  of  the  potter^  and  the 
handle  of  the  lid  is  a  qnaint  little  frog  made  from  bits 
of  clay.  It  is  a  quaint,  common,  little  teapot  with  a 
charm  of  its  own,  due  chiefly  to  its  individuality.  We 
know  that  other  teapots  made  by  the  same  potter  must 
show  some  differences  even  though  slight.  A  number 
of  years  ago  a  writer  in  the  House  Beautiful  called  my 
attention  to  this  by  bewailing  that  this  form  of  Banko 
ware  is  no  longer  made,  and  in  its  place  is  made  a  ware 
of  colored  clays  which  form  a  design  which  goes  through 
the  wall  of  the  vessel.  This  the  writer  decried  as  being 
commercial,  machine  made,  etc.  ISTaturally  my  Banko 
teapot  had  an  increased  value  to  me  because  I  could 
not  replace  it  and  because  an  authority  had  commended 
it.  This  also  shows  that  the  more  knowledge  we  have 
of  an  article  the  more  interesting  will  it  be.  (See 
Collecting.) 

But  to  go  back  to  our  moist  clay,  there  are  so  many 
things  which  can  be  made  which  may  have  value  if  well 
made.  Vases,  jars,  etc.,  may  be  built  up  by  coil  work, 
the  clay  being  rolled  out  in  a  long,  narrow  string-like 
piece,  which  is  laid  on  itself  to  form  the  shape  desired 
and  then  smoothed  off  with  the  wet  hand  or  a  wet  tool. 
After  having  dried  thoroughly  these  may  be  fired  in  a 
kiln.  One  of  these  can  usually  be  found  at  no  great 
distance  and  the  fee  is  a  small  one.  Clay  found  on  some 
country  ramble  will  serve  as  well,  perhaps,  and  may  be 
more  interesting  to  the  patient  than  that  bought  from 
the  shop. 


PLASTIC   WOKK  187 

If  the  patient  shows  sufficient  ability,  lessons  should 
be  taken  in  this  fascinating  art  and  a  potter's  wheel 
set  up.  It  is  certainly  a  delightful  thing  to  see  an  ex- 
pert potter  shape  a  lump  of  clay  on  his  wheel,  and  must 
be  a  delightful  accomplishment. 

In  modelling  it  is  well  to  begin  by  making  solid  ob- 
jects, the  round,  so-called,  then  high  relief,  and  last, 
low  relief.    In  this  way  a  better  idea  of  form  is  gained. 

There  is  a  prepared  form  of  colored  clays  called 
Plasticine  which  comes  in  sets  and  is  an  excellent  way 
of  beginning  clay  modelling. 

References : 

Holland.  Clay  Modelling;  75  cents.  The  Way  of  the  Clay; 
20  cents. 

Lester,  Katharine,  Clay  Work;  $1.00.  Clay  Modelling  in 
the  Schoolroom;   25  cents. 

Sargent.  Modelling  in  Public  Schools;  GO  cents.  Modelling 
for  the  Standards;    60   cents. 

Binns,  F.     The  Potter's  Craft;    $2.00. 

White.     How  to  Make  Pottery;    $1.00. 

PLASTER  CASTS. 

Should  our  patient  model  something  that  is  worth 
keeping,  but  we  are  unable  to  have  it  fired,  a  plaster  cast 
can  be  made.  To  do  this  a  thin  film  of  salad  oil  is 
painted  over  the  object  to  prevent  the  plaster  sticking, 
and  if  the  matrix,  or  mould,  must  be  made  in  sections 
on  account  of  the  form  of  the  object,  a  wall  of  clay  is 
built  along  the  line  where  the  section  of  the  matrix 
under  construction  must  cleave,  a  retaining  wall  of  some 
sort  made,  such  as  a  piece  of  tin  or  wood,  and  the  first 


188  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

section  cast  by  pouring  into  the  cavity  made  a  thick 
cream  of  plaster  and  water.  After  twenty-four  hours 
the  tin,  or  wood,  and  clay  are  removed,  the  edges  of  the 
matrix  are  greased  as  well  as  the  object  and  another 
section  of  the  matrix  is  cast.  After  twenty-four  or 
more  hours  the  matrix  can  be  removed.  It  is  well  to  in- 
sert pins  of  some  sort  into  the  clay  wall,  or  make  de- 
pressions in  the  plaster  of  the  cleavage  of  the  matrix  to 
form  keys  so  that  the  sections  will  fit  well  together. 
To  make  the  cast  the  sections  of  the  matrix  are  greased 
and  then  bound  together,  a  moderately  thick  cream  of 
plaster  is  poured  into  it  and  the  matrix  turned  rapidly 
so  that  the  plaster  is  distributed  about  the  cavity  and 
forms  a  shell.  Some  persons  prefer  to  make  the  cast 
solid,  but  it  is  unnecessary.  Considerable  time  should 
be  allowed  for  the  cast  to  harden.  A  week  is  not  too 
long,  although  the  mould  may  be  removed  carefully  be- 
fore that  time  elapses.  A  very  satisfactory  book  on  the 
subject  is  Modelling  and  Sculpture  by  Albert  Toft 
(London,  1911,  Seely  &  Co.,  Limited). 

STARCH  BEADS. 

A  very  simple  form  of  plastic  work  which  requires 
no  artistic  skill  is  the  making  of  starch  beads,  or  salt 
beads,  as  they  are  also  called.  There  are  a  number  of 
ways  of  making  these.  In  one  we  require  one  cup  of 
salt,  a  half  cup  of  boiling  water,  and  half  a  cup  of 
cornstarch.  Mix  the  cornstarch  with  a  little  water  and 
add  the  color  (Diamond  or  other  dye).     Put  the  salt 


PLASTIC   -WOKK  189 

in  the  hot  water  and  boil  it.  Add  the  cornstarch  and 
mix  vigorously.  Oil  the  hands  with  olive  oil  and  knead 
the  paste  while  hot  until  it  is  smooth,  after  which  the 
dough  may  be  set  aside  and  used  at  any  time.  A  small 
piece  is  rolled  in  the  hands  until  it  is  the  shape  desired, 
when  it  is  pierced  with  a  hatpin  and  set  aside  to  dry 
and  harden.  The  beads  are  afterwards  strung,  usually 
as  a  necklace. 

Another  method  is  as  follows :  Take  one  large  table- 
spoonful  of  ordinary  flour,  or  better,  cornstarch,  and 
the  same  of  fine  table  salt,  mix  well  and  sift  together, 
add  just  enough  cold  water  to  make  a  very  stiff  dough, 
first  tinting  the  water  with  any  color  desired.  "Work 
well  until  the  salt  is  dissolved,  take  a  very  little  of  the 
dough  at  a  time,  keeping  the  remainder  covered  with 
a  cup  or  bowl  to  prevent  drying.  Roll  out  with  a  rolling 
pin  (not  very  thick)  and  cut,  as  are  cookies,  with  a 
band  ring;  then  cut  in  two  to  make  two  beads.  EoU 
them  in  the  palms  of  the  hands,  which  should  be  moist. 
String  on  fine  broom  straw  and  keep  out  of  the  sun  and 
wind  to  avoid  cracking  while  drying. 

These  beads  are  usually  strung  alternately  with  glass 
or  gilt  beads,  and  if  they  have  been  well  colored  are 
quite  pretty. 

CEMENT  WORK. 

Cement  work  has  been  used  as  an  occupation  for  cer- 
tain cases,  and  has  been  developed  to  a  distinct  craft  by 
D*r.  Herbert  Hall  at  his  Marblehead  Sanitarium,  where 
only  nervous  cases  are  treated.  It  is  also  used  at  a 
number  of  other  places.     My  experience  with  it  is  too 


190  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

limited  to  permit  my  expressing  any  decided  opinion 
as  to  its  value.  I  am  of  the  belief  at  present,  however, 
that  it  may  be  of  use  in  only  a  limited  number  of  cases. 
Mrs.  Slagle  believes  that  it  is  of  especial  value  for  senile 
cases,  but  I  cannot  understand  how  such  can  use  this 
craft  except  under  competent  direction,  and  then  only 
to  a  limited  degree.  It  is  a  rather  fascinating  craft 
and  in  simpler  forms  is  not  especially  difficult.  Door 
porters  and  book  rests  are  made,  but  are  not  very  good 
for  polished  floors  or  tables.  These  are  simply  made. 
A  wood  or  metal  frame  of  the  size  desired  is  filled  with 
the  mixture  of  sand  and  cement,  packed  hard,  smoothed 
off,  and  a  design  cut  in  the  top  by  the  aid  of  a  stencil 
or  free  hand.  Or  an  ornament  may  be  made  in  a  mould 
and  applied.  After  two  or  three  hours  the  frame  may 
be  removed  and  the  cast  on  its  board  set  aside  to  dry. 
This  should  not  be  done  too  quickly  or  cracks  will  show. 
To  prevent  this  the  cast  should  be  sprinkled  well  twice 
daily  for  at  least  a  week. 

The  mixture  used  is  the  same  as  the  finishing  coat 
for  concrete  work — that  is,  one  part  of  Portland  cement 
to  two  parts  of  sand.  A  perfect  sand  is  difficult  to  ob- 
tain, as  that  from  the  seashore  contains  salt,  and  that 
found  inland  usually  contains  clay,  both  of  which 
weaken  the  cast  by  preventing  a  proper  bonding  between 
the  grains  of  sand  and  the  cement.  The  sard  may  be 
washed,  however,  and  so  purified. 

If  a  white  cast  is  desired,  a  mix  may  be  made  of 
three  parts  of  marble  dust  to  one  of  white  cement,  this 
being  about  three  times  more  expensive  than  the  grey. 


PLASTIC   WOEK  191 

Moulds,  the  board  on  whicli  the  cast  is  made,  the 
frame,  etc.,  should  be  oiled.  Dr.  Hall  recommends  a 
mixture  of  a  half  pound  of  melted  paraffin  to  a  quart  of 
kerosene,  and  cautions  against  its  free  use. 

There  are  many  little  "tricks  of  the  trade"  which  will 
be  learned  by  experience,  or  can  better  be  gotten  from 
some  book  on  the  subject.  The  most  difficult  thing  to 
learn  is  how  much  water  to  add  to  the  mix.  I  would 
recommend,  .for  reference.  Concrete  Pottery  and  Gar- 
den Furniture.^ 

1  Davison,    Ralph    C.     Concrete   Pottery   and    Garden    Fur- 
niture; New  York,  1910,  Munn  &  Co.,  Inc. 


DRAwnra  and  painting. 

While  these  are  essentially  arts  and  require  a  natural 
talent  as  well  as  years  of  training  in  order  to  achieve 
any  success  in  them,  if  the  patient  shows  a  desire  to 
undertake  them  he  should  be  encouraged  to  do  so.  It 
is,  perhaps,  too  much  to  suppose  that  the  nurse  has  any 
particular  ability  in  either  of  them  and  so  she  cannot 
act  as  teacher,  but  she  can  suggest  books  on  the  subject 
and  can  do  much  by  encouragement.  She  should  bear 
in  mind  that  it  is  better  for  her  patient  to  do  something 
badly  than  to  do  nothing  at  all.  As  a  secondary  occu- 
pation the  patient  may  be  induced  to  take  up  a  study 
of  the  history  of  art  (see  p.  4Y). 


J 


Fig.  39. 


There  are  several  simple  little  drawing  tricks  which 
the  nurse  may  use  to  arouse  the  interest  of  her  patient 
as  she  uses  puzzles  and  catches.     The  oldest  of  these  is 

192 


DRAWING  AND   PAINTING. 


193 


by  Hogarth  and  represents  a  soldier  and  his  dog  going 
through  a  doorway.  As  is  seen  by  the  diagram,  it  con- 
sists of  three  straight  lines  and  one  curved  one.  This 
has  been  used  to  show  the  value  of  a  line,  which  the 
following  also  illustrates. 


Fig.  40. 

Here  we  have  a  view  of  a  sailboat  on  the  Hudson 
Eiver  just  above  West  Point,  although  it  will  serve 
equally  well  for  a  view  of  Lake  Como.    It  will  be  noted 


^ — »^ 


Fig.  41. 


that  it  has  been  drawn  with  but  four  lines,  not  includ- 
ing the  frame. 

Another  trick  is  to  draw  an  outline  of  the  thumb  held 
sidewise  and  fill  it  in  to  represent  a  dog's  head. 


194 


OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 


Pigs  drawn  witli  one's  eyes  closed  may  be  amusing, 
as  also  the  following  geometrical  animals. 


IL 


a 


P\6 


^ 


Foy 


Fig,  42. 


There  are  quite  a  number  of  these  drawing  tricks 
which  the  nurse  may  collect. 


ILLUMINATING. 

A  brief  history  of  the  development  of  bookmaking 
has  been  given  under  bookbinding  (p.  156).  This  gives 
us  sufficient  knowledge  for  an  understanding  of  the 
present  subject,  although  more  detail  may  be  easily 
learned  if  desired.^    We  are  here  interested  in  but  one 

1  Encyclopedia  Brittanica.  Illuminated  Mss.,  XIV,  312. 
Manuscript,  XVII,  618.  Palaeography,  XX,  556.  Miniature, 
XVIII,  523.     Typography,  XXVII,  509.     Printing,  XXII,  350. 


DEAWING  AND   PAINTING.  195 

phase  of  bookmaking,  though  a  very  delightful  and  in- 
teresting one.  From  earliest  time  man  has  ornamented 
his  most  precious  possessions,  and  the  earlier  books 
show  evidences  that  they  were  valued  by  the  ornamen- 
tation found  in  them  as  well  as  on  their  casings.  This 
ornamentation  usually  consisted  in  making  more  or  less 
elaborate  letters,  decorations,  or  pictures,  and  the  pro- 
cess has  been  called  illuminating.  According  to  our 
oft  quoted  authority,  the  Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  "Il- 
lumination, in  art,  is  a  term  used  to  signify  the  embel- 
lishment of  written  or  printed  text  or  design  with  colors 
and  gold,  rarely  also  with  silver.  The  old  form  of  the 
verb  'to  illuminate'  was  to  'enlumine'  (0.  Fr.  enlu- 
miner;  Latin,  illuminare,  'to  throw  light  on,'  'to 
brighten'),  as  used  by  Chaucer  (A.  B.  C,  73),  'kalen- 
dres  enlumined  ben  they,'  and  other  medieval  writers." 
An  inspection  of  old  manuscript  books  shows  how  much 
they  were  brightened  by  being  illuminated.  Probably 
one  of  the  best  collections  illustrating  the  development 
of  books  is  to  be  found  in  the  Library  of  Congress  at 
Washington. 

In  the  history  of  illuminating  there  is  much  that  is 
of  interest.  The  earliest  known  examples  are  found  in 
papyrus  rolls  containing  the  Egyptian  ritual  known  as 
The  Book  of  the  Dead,  and  consist  of  scenes  in  colors. 
They  date  from  the  fifteen  century  B.  C.  Numerous 
references  to  illuminated  books  are  found  in  Latin. 
According  to  Mr.  Wyatt: 

"Martial,  in  his  first  epistle,  points  out  the  book- 
seller's shop  opposite  the  Julian  Forum,  in  which  his 


196  OCCUPATION    THEEAPT 

works  may  be  obtained  ^smoothed  with  pumice-stone 
and  decorated  with  purple.'  Seneca  mentions  books  or- 
namented 'cum  imaginibus.'  Varro  is  related  by  Pliny 
to  have  illustrated  his  works  by  likenesses  of  more  than 
seven  hundred  illustrious  persons.  Pliny,  again,  in- 
forms us  that  writers  on  medicine  gave  representations 
in  their  treatises  of  the  plants  which  they  described. 
Martial  dwells  on  the  editions  of  Yirgil,  with  his  por- 
trait as  a  frontispiece.  The  earliest  recorded  instance 
of  the  richer  adornments  of  golden  lettering  on  purple 
or  rose-stained  vellum,  is  given  by  Julius  Capitolinus 
in  his  life  of  the  Emperor  Maximinus  the  younger.  He 
therein  mentions  that  the  mother  of  the  emperor  pre- 
sented to  him,  on  his  return  to  his  tutor  (early  in  the 
3d  century) ,  a  copy  of  the  works  of  Homer,  written  in 
gold  upon  purple  vellum." 

The  character  of  the  work  in  the  manuscripts  of  the 
third  century  A.  D.  forms  a  connecting  link  between  the 
art  of  the  Eoman  Empire  and  that  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  may  be  compared  with  the  wall  paintings  of  Pom- 
peii and  of  the  catacombs. 

There  were  several  schools,  the  chief  of  which  were 
known  as  the  Byzantine,  Celtic,  and  Carloingian  or 
Franko-Lombardic.  Of  these  the  Celtic  was  the  most 
important,  and  has  been  described  as  "a  mechanical 
art  brought  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection  by  the 
most  skilful  and  patient  elaboration."  It  is  character- 
ized by  the  use  of  interlaced  ribbons,  scrolls,  etc.,  in- 
termingled with  rather  grotesque  animals,  and  the  use 
of  red  dots.    Gold  was  never  used.    A  copy  of  the  Gos- 


DKAWING   AXD   PAINTING.  197 

pels,  known  as  the  Book  of  Kells,  is  the  most  famous 
early  example  and  dates  from  the  seventh  century.  The 
Lindisfarne  Gospels,  written  in  honor  of  St.  Cuthbert 
and  completed  early  in  the  eighth  century,  shows  the 
influence  of  the  Byzantine  school  in  the  use  of  gold  and 
in  the  treatment  of  some  of  the  figures,  hut  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  is  a  perfect  example  of  the  Celtic 
style. 

The  history  of  illuminating  cannot  he  further  pur- 
sued except  to  say  that  with  the  invention  of  printing 
from  movable  types  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury there  came  a  decline  in  the  manufacture  of  illum- 
inated and  written  books,  and  few  were  made  after  the 
sixteenth  century,  although  the  names  of  Van  Eyck  and 
Memlinc  are  associated  with  illuminating.  Early  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  however,  there  was  a  revival  of 
the  art,  due  chiefly  to  Dudley  Costello  (1803-1865)  and 
his  sister  Louisa  (1799-1870)  who  in  1835  published 
a  book  entitled  Specimens  of  the  Early  Poetry  of 
France,  dedicated  to  Moore,  which  was  illustrated  by 
beautiful  illuminations,  and  was  followed  by  other 
books  similarly  illustrated.  These  stimulated  an  in- 
terest in  the  study  of  illuminating  which  still  survives. 
While  the  combination  of  illuminating  with  type 
printed  books  has  never  been  successful,  addresses  of  a 
formal  character,  church  books,  mottoes,  etc.,  are  ap- 
propriate subjects. 

The  art  is  one  which  is  not  lightly  to  be  pursued,  as 
patience  and  perseverance  are  required  to  master  pen 
and  brush,  but  to  a  person  of  artistic  tastes,  it  is  an 


198  OCCUPATIO]^"    THEEAPT 

admirable  outlet  when  the  more  artistic  painting  or 
drawing  is  impossible.  The  sensory  training  of  eye  and 
hand  makes  it  valuable  as  an  occupation,  especially  in 
cases  of  mild  depression,  where  concentration  of  atten- 
tion is  desired.  It  can  easily  be  conceived  that  the  num- 
ber of  patients  who  can  be  occupied  with  illuminating 
will  be  relatively  small,  but  it  is  also  conceivable  that 
for  certain  individuals  it  may  be  of  great  value. 

^ATiat  is  sometimes  called  illuminating,  but  which  can 
hardly  be  dignified  by  the  term,  is  the  coloring  or  em- 
bellishing of  initial  letters  or  ornaments  in  printed 
books  with  water  colors  or  colored  inks.  This  is  a 
much  simpler  process,  much  less  artistic,  but  may  pro- 
duce pleasing  results.  ISTotable  instances  of  this  form  of 
work  are  some  of  the  Eoycroft  books.  As  an  occupa- 
tion this  so-called  illuminating  may  be  of  value  as  a 
diversion,  or  as  a  preliminary  step  to  engage  the  in- 
terest of  the  patient  in  the  more  difficult  illuminating. 

The  most  practical  work  on  the  subject  is  that  of 
Edward  Johnston.^  The  older  work  of  Tymms  and 
Wyatt^  is  much  more  interesting  from  an  historical 
standpoint,  and  contains  a  number  of  examples,  but  it 
can  probably  only  be  obtained  from  a  dealer  in  old 
books  and  many  of  its  directions  are  out  of  date. 

1  Johnston,  Edward.  Writing  and  Illuminating  and  Letter- 
ing.    New  York,  1906,  Macmillan   Co. 

2  Tymms,  W.  R.,  and  M.  D.  Wyatt.  The  Art  of  Illuminating 
as  Practiced  in  Europe  from  the  Earliest  Times.  London. 
(1860),  Day  and  Son. 


DRAWING  AND   PAINTING.  199 

PRINTING. 

As  an  occupation  for  a  mentally  defective  patient, 
either  congenital  or  acquired,  printing  is  admirable. 
Printing  outfits  may  be  purchased  for  comparatively 
small  sums,  and  adequate  books  of  instruction  accom- 
pany them.  Fl-om  simple  beginnings,  such  as  a  single 
line  on  a  card,  the  work  may  be  developed  to  orna- 
mental work  in  several  colors  or  small  booklets.  It  is 
a  developing  occupation  and  trains  in  many  ways. 

References : 

McClellan,   George  E.     Practical   Typography;    $1.50. 
Mackellar,  Thomas.     The  American  Printer. 


METAL  WORK. 

Metal  work  may  be  very  simple  or  not  and  in  it  we 
have  a  wide  range  in  choice  of  occupation. 

PUNCHED  METAL. 

Probably  the  simplest  form  is  that  known  as  punched 
brass,  which  was  nearly  ruined  by  commercial  exploit- 
ing. It  may  have  considerable  beauty,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent occupation  for  cases  of  dementia  praecox  or  for 
deep  depression.  It  consists  in  outlining  a  design, 
which  has  been  drawn  on  ISTo.  30  soft  brass,  with  small 
holes  punched  with  a  small  awl.  The  background  is 
then  punched  with  larger  holes.  The  brass  is  laid  on 
or  tacked  to  a  board  while  the  work  is  being  done. 
Very  pretty  boxes,  teapot  tiles,  etc.,  are  made  from 
wood  covered  with  the  brass  and  afterward  punched. 
A  sharp  nail  will  serve  as  a  punch,  and  if  no  brass 
can  be  procured,  thin  tin  can  be  made  to  serve. 

A  modification  of  the  above  is  made  by  outlining 
designs  on  heavier  brass,  copper  or  tin.  A  chisel- 
shaped  punch  can  be  filed  from  a  wire  nail  and  used 
quite  effectively  for  the  outlining.  This  work  is  also 
done  on  a  board,  and  ornamental  punches  such  as  are 
used  in  leather  work  can  be  used  on  the  background. 
This  last  was  a  very  popular  craft  thirty  years  ago,  but 
has  been  superseded  by  the  punched  work  noted  above. 
When  the  ornamental  punches  are  used  the  metal  is 
not  perforated. 

200 


METAX,  WORK  201 

PIERCED  OR  SAWED  METAL. 

This  may  be  said  to  be  the  next  development  of  metal, 
and  as  the  name  implies,  consists  in  sawing  from  sheet 
metal  ornaments  such  as  escutcheons,  handle  plates, 
finger  plates,  etc.  Practically  any  soft  metal  can  be 
used,  such  as  brass,  copper,  aluminum,  or  silver. 

The  tools  required  are  quite  few  and  comparatively 
inexpensive,  being  a  jewelers'  saw  frame  with  a  num- 
ber of  blades,  drills  of  varying  sizes,  files  of  several 
kinds,  a  hammer  for  straightening  or  bending  the  metal, 
and  a  small  metal  vise.  The  equipment  can  be  extended 
when  desired. 

The  design  is  outlined  on  the  metal  with  pencil  or 
stylus,  holes  are  drilled  where  it  is  necessary  to  take 
out  a  piece  of  metal  such  as  making  a  key-hole,  and  we 
are  ready  to  begin  our  sawing.  The  metal  may  be  fas- 
tened in  the  vise,  but  it  is  better  to  have  a  board  about 
six  inches  wide  fastened  to  the  work  table  and  project- 
ing six  or  more  inches  from  it.  It  is  well  to  have  this 
notched,  like  a  bootjack,  as  it  will  be  found  that  the 
sawing  can  be  done  more  easily.  This  board  is  like 
that  used  for  coping  saw  work.  The  saw  is  held  ver- 
tically and  it  will  be  found  that  more  accurate  work 
can  be  done  than  if  it  is  held  horizontally,  as  is  neces- 
sary when  the  work  is  held  in  a  vise.  After  our  piece 
is  sawed  out  it  should  be  smoothed  up  with  fine  files  and 
emery  paper. 

This  is  an  excellent  occupation,  and  I  have  never 
found  it  to  fail  in  helping  a  patient.  In  most  cases, 
and  especially  in  dementia  praecox,  it  is  well  to  give  a 


202  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

preliminary  course  in  punch  work  in  order  to  educate 
in  accurate  placing  of  tools,  or  education  of  eye  and 
liand.  Sawed  out  aluminum  letters  riveted  to  a  piece  of 
copper  make  a  very  neat  sign  for  outdoors,  and  the  same 
on  a  dark  wood,  such  as  walnut  or  cherry,  a  most  at- 
tractive indoor  sign.  The  possibilities  in  this  sawed 
metal  work  seem  endless. 

HAMMERED  METAL. 

This  usually  means  hammered  copper,  as  that  is  soft 
and  gives  very  beautiful  effects,  but  soft  brass  or  silver 
may  also  be  used.  Very  beautiful  bowls,  dishes,  and 
other  vessels  may  be  made,  as  well  as  smaller  articles. 
This  unfortunately  requires  an  equipment  of  anvils 
and  hammers,  besides  numerous  other  tools.  Gas  is 
necessary,  or  some  other,  form  of  fire,  to  anneal  the  cop- 
per. By  this  we  mean  softening  it.  Hammering 
causes  a  rearrangement  of  the  molecules  of  copper  to  the 
shape  we  desire.  This  has  to  be  done  gradually  to 
avoid  cracking,  and  as  hammering  hardens  the  copper, 
it  must  be  heated  to  a  cherry  red  to  expand  it  and  then 
suddenly  cooled  by  plunging  it  into  water. 

A  special  equipment  for  this  work  is  made  up  by  one 
firm  at  a  cost  of  fifty  dollars. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  do  justice  to  this  subject  in 
brief  space  the  reader  is  referred  to  special  works  on 
the  subject.  Probably  the  best  is  by  Augustus  F.  Rose.^ 
1  Rose,  Augustus  F.  Copper  Work.  An  illustrated  text- 
book for  teachers  and  students  in  the  manual  arts.  Wor- 
cester, Mass,   1909,   The  Davis  Press. 

Sleffel,  Charles  Conrad.  Working  in  Metals,  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co.,  Library  of  Work  and  Play. 


METAL  WOKK  203 

If  we  desire  a  hammered  effect  on  some  of  our  flat 
sawed  work,  this  may  be  done  with  any  dome-shaped 
hammer,  like  the  ball-pein,  before  doing  the  sawing. 
With  the  same  sort  of  hammer  we  may  make  paper 
knives  from  heavy  copper  wire,  or  the  blade  of  a  paper 
knife,  the  handle  of  which  has  been  sawed.  A  flatiron 
from  which  the  handle  has  been  broken  makes  an  excel- 
lent anvil  for  this  simple  flat  work. 

VENETIAN  IRON  WORK.i 

This  has  been  a  more  or  less  popular  craft  for  a  long 
time,  but  I  cannot  recommend  it,  as  there  are  so  many 
other  better  occupations.  It  consists  in  bending  narrow 
strips  of  soft  iron  to  form  an  ornamental  scroll,  which  is 
adapted  to  many  forms.  These  are  held  together  with 
small  pieces  of  metal  called  clasps.  While  some  rather 
handsome  pieces  have  been  made,  the  majority  of  it  is 
inartistic  and  fussy.  It  has  the  further  disadvantage 
of  being  difficult.  All  parts  must  be  bent  accurately  or 
the  work  will  not  be  strong,  and  accurate  work  of  this 
sort  requires  considerable  skill.  If  such  is  to  be  de- 
veloped it  had  better  be  for  something  worth  while.  The 
clasps  are  difficult  to  apply  strongly.  The  materials  are 
simple  and  the  tools  few:  flat  and  round-nosed  pliers, 
shears,  hammer,  small  vise  and  anvil. 

If  a  patient  desires  to  do  this  craft  he  should  be  given 
the  facilities,  but  it  should  not  be  urged  upon  him.     It 

iMorse,    T.   Vernette.       Venetian    Iron   Work.     How   to   Do 
It  Series.     Chicago,  1907,  A.  Flanagan  Co. 


204  OCCUPATION    THEEAPT 

is  apt  to  produce  a  feeling  of  irritation  and  a  sense  of 
failure,  which  is  very  bad  in  any  depressed  case. 

JEWELRY. 

The  making  of  silver  jewelry  is  an  excellent  occu- 
pation for  convalescent  patients  who  possess  a  slight 
mechanical  skill  and  an  appreciation  of  beautiful 
things.  They  may  become  quite  skilful  in  this  delight- 
ful craft.  Instruction  can  usually  be  obtained  in  it  at 
some  art  school. 

ETCHED  METAL.i 
A  very  simple  way  of  decorating  metal  is  by  etching 
with  acid.  After  the  metal  has  been  cleaned  from 
grease,  the  design  which  is  chosen  is  drawn  on  the  metal 
and  the  background  is  painted  over  with  asphaltum 
paint  or  varnish,  which  may  be  procured  at  art  stores, 
and  allowed  to  dry.  After  the  paint  has  thoroughly 
dried,  which  may  require  ten  hours,  the  metal  is  im- 
mersed in  a  solution  of  one  part  of  nitric  acid  to  two 
parts  of  water,  the  acid  being  added  to  the  water,  other- 
wise burns  may  result  from  its  spattering.  If,  after  the 
metal  has  been  placed  in  the  solution,  greenish  fumes 
arise  and  there  is  active  bubbling,  a  little  water  should 
be  added.  The  time  required  for  the  etching  will  be 
from  one  to  four  hours,  and,  until  experience  has  been 
gained,  the  metal  should  be  lifted  from  the  solution 
every  now  and  then  and  examined.    As  soon  as  the  etch- 

1  Adams,  John  D.  Metal  Work  and  Etching.  Chicago. 
Popular   Mechanics   Co. 


METAL  WORK  205 

ing  is  as  deep  as  desired,  the  metal  should  be  rinsed  off, 
placed  in  kerosene  to  dissolve  the  asphaltum,  and  then 
wiped  off  with  a  rag,  washed  with  soap  and  water  and 
dried.  The  etched  part  may  be  darkened  by  a  strong 
solution  of  butter  of  antimony  (chlorid  of  antimony), 
the  remainder  polished  and  lacquer  applied  to  the 
whole.  Many  very  attractive  things  may  be  developed 
in  this  way.  Hatpins  may  be  made  of  a  piece  of  cop- 
per about  an  inch  square  to  which  the  shank  of  an  or- 
dinary hatpin  is  soldered  after  the  metal  has  been 
etched,  or  decorated  by  punches  (see  page  200).  Book 
ends,  paper  knives,  desk  sets,  watch  fobs,  and  many 
other  articles  may  be  decorated  in  this  way. 

LEATHER  WORK. 

Leather  work  is  one  of  the  best  crafts  for  beginners 
(MickeP).  There  are  many  varieties  of  it  and  persons 
with  but  little  artistic  ability  may  do  good  work  in 
more  than  one  of  them.  Very  beautiful  and  useful 
articles  can  be  made  by  those  skilled  in  the  use  of  the 
simple  tools  required  and  in  the  possibilities  of  the 
craft. 

According  to  De  Eecy^  the  methods  of  decoration  of 
leather  are: 

Cut  or  engraved, 

1  Mickel,  Adelaide.  Leather  Work.  Peoria,  1913,  The  Man- 
ual Arts  Press. 

2De  Recy,  Georges.  Translated  by  Maude  Nathan.  The 
Decoration  of  Leather.  London,  1905,  Archibald  Constable 
&  Co.,  Limited. 


206  OCCUPATION     THERAPY 

Carved, 

Punched  or  hammered, 

Modelled, 

Modelled  with  punched  background. 

Leather  decorated  by  pyrogravure  and  pinto  gravure, 

Stamped, 

Open-work, 

Leather  mosaic. 

Cow  and  calf  are  the  most  suitable  leathers  for  ar- 
tistic work.  Chamois  is  only  suitable  for  stencilling  or 
pyrography.  Vellum,  a  very  thin  and  stiff  white  skin, 
can  be  decorated  with  brush  or  penwork.  It  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  bookbinding. 

It  will  be  found  on  consulting  books  upon  leather 
work  that  there  is  not  an  agreement  as  to  just  what 
each  term  denotes,  but  this  is  not  sufficiently  serious  to 
disturb  us,  who  must  regard  ourselves  as  tyros. 

The  first  step,  that  of  transferring  the  design  to  the 
leather,  is  the  same  in  all  methods  of  decoration.  The 
leather  must  first  be  dampened,  and  here  comes  the  first 
divergence.  De  Recy  says  to  pass  a  soft,  slightly  damp 
sponge  evenly  over  the  whole  surface.  The  leather 
worker  who  gave  me  the  first  instruction  in  the  art, 
recommended  that  the  leather  be  rolled  in  a  wet  towel 
and  allowed  to  remain  as  long  as  necessary.  It  makes 
little  difference  which  method  is  adopted  provided  the 
leather  is  all  dampened,  for  if  only  a  part  is  done,  it 
is  marked.  The  design  should  be  drawn  on  tracing 
cloth  if  it  is  to  be  preserved  and  used  again,  but  may 
be  on  paper.     It  is  laid  on  the  leather  in  such  a  way 


METAL  WOKK  207 

that  it  will  not  slip.  The  tracer,  a  tool  with  a  fairly 
sharp  point  like  a  stylus,  is  then  drawn  over  the  design 
and  will  be  found  to  leave  a  line  on  the  leather  when 
the  design  is  removed.  If  the  leather  is  to  be  modelled 
these  lines  are  again  gone  over  with  the  stylus  and 
deepened.  This  work  should  be  done  with  the  leather 
on  a  hard,  smooth  surface,  such  as  a  slab  of  marble, 
slate,  or  heavy  glass.  Then  with  a  modelling  tool  work 
the  background  down.  This  leaves  the  design  in  relief 
and  constitutes  flat  modelling.  If  we  turn  the  leather 
over  on  a  chamois  pad,  or  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and 
from  the  back,  with  the  modeller  force  up  the  design, 
we  have  what  is  sometimes  called  embossed  leather. 

If,  after  we  have  transferred  our  design,  we  incise 
the  mark  with  a  sharp  knife  to  one-quarter  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  leather,  we  are  then  ready  to  carve  or  en- 
grave it.  The  incising  should  be  done  vertically,  ex- 
cepting where  a  leaf,  petal  or  piece  of  detached  ribbon 
is  to  be  shown,  when  the  incising  should  be  done  slant- 
ingly under  it.  Incised  lines  should  never  quite  in- 
tersect. If  these  lines  be  deepened  and  accentuated  we 
have  engraved  leather. 

Carved  leather  is  more  difficult  and  consists  in  pro- 
ducing lines  so  deep  that  the  design  stands  out  suffi- 
ciently from  the  background  to  allow  of  its  being  orna- 
mented by  independent  lines  less  deeply  worked. 
■Gravers  or  gouges  are  sometimes  used  for  this,  but  re- 
quire considerable  skill  to  manipulate  them.  After  the 
design  has  been  incised,  the  modeller  is  used  to  press 
the  leather  away  from  it,  and  in  the  larger  spaces  a 


208  OCCUPATIO]^     THEEAPY 

smooth-faced  puncli  is  used  to  beat  tlie  leather  down. 
This  background  may  be  then  gone  over  with  a  punch 
which  is  pressed,  or  tapped,  with  a  hammer  so  that  the 
background  is  covered  with  the  design.  These  punches 
come  in  a  variety  of  forms,  and  are  susceptible  to  many 
combinations.  For  example,  a  pimch  consisting  of  two 
parallel  lines  may  be  right  angled  to  itseK  and  give  the 
effect  of  basketry,  or  may  simply  be  repeated  1 1  |  ]  ]  |  1 1 
=  II  =  II .  This  is  called  modelled  leather  with 
punched  background. 

Hammered  leather  is  decorated  entirely  by  punches. 
The  design  is  usually  marked  with  a  punch  making  a 
continuous  or  interrupted  line,  and  other  forms  are 
used  for  ornament. 

The  tools  need  not  be  expensive.  An  orange  stick 
may  serve  for  a  tracer,  a  nut  pick  with  a  broad  point 
as  a  modeller,  nail  sets  for  round  punches,  and  other 
forms  may  be  made  by  cutting  off  large  wire  nails  and 
filing  various  patterns  on  this  flat  end. 

Modelled  leather  is  sometimes  backed  with  a  paste 
of  glue  and  whiting  before  being  made  up. 

Leather  may  be  tinted  with  various  dyes,  or  by  Hig- 
gin's  waterproof  inks.  The  rich  brown  color  which  is 
sought  for  is  sometimes  produced  by  smearing  the 
leather  with  butter  and  placing  it  out  in  the  sun. 

Even  the  very  brief  instructions  which  have  been 
given  above  are  sufficient  for  the  beginner  to  start  this 
delightful  craft  if  he  has  the  advantage  of  having  seen 
pieces  in  the  form  of  leather  decoration  that  he  is  at- 
tempting.    The  occupation  is  an  excellent  one  for  the 


METAL  WORK  209 

case  of  depression  wlio  is  apt  to  become  interested  in 
spite  of  himself,  and  so  train  his  voluntary  attention. 
If  he  is  suicidal,  we  must,  of  course,  restrict  him  to 
modelled  or  punched  leather. 

A  much  simpler  form  of  leather  work,  which  cannot 
be  dignified  with  the  term  decorated  leather,  consists 
in  cutting  holes  in  leather  much  after  the  fashion  of 
making  a  stencil  and  lining  it  with  chamois,  silk  or 
leather  of  another  color. 

Again,  a  design  may  be  cut  from  leather  and  fas- 
tened to  crash,  burlap,  or  some  other  fabric  by  gluing, 
the  so-called  leather  applique. 

Leather  is  also  burnt  and  painted,  but  these  methods 
are  much  less  artistic  than  those  first  given  and  are 
not  such  good  occupations  for  our  patients.  Ooze  calf, 
sheepskin,  or  chamois  is  generally  used  in  these 
methods. 

References : 

Charles.    Leather  Work;   35  cents. 
Hasluck.     Leather  Work;   50  cents. 

Girling,  Katharine.  How  to  Tool  and  Emboss  Leather. 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  November,  1902. 


PYROGEAPHY. 

Pjrography  has  been  mentioned  as  a  means  of  dec- 
orating leather.  It  is  also  used  to  decorate  wood,  and 
many  useless  things  have  been  presented  by  devotees 
of  this  craft.  On  account  of  the  danger  from  fire  it 
cannot  be  recommended  as  a  craft  for  mental  or  ner- 
vous cases.  Mention  is  made  of  it  here  chiefly  to  ex- 
clude it.  It  is  used  in  some  hospitals  and  is  no  doubt 
proper  for  a  certain  class  of  convalescent  or  chronic 
cases.  There  are  so  many  better  crafts,  however,  that 
the  nurse  is  not  advised  to  suggest  it  to  her  patient. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  there  is  but  one  person 
who  has  done  noteworthy  artistic  work  in  pyrography 
in  the  last  twenty  years,  and  that  is  J.  William  Fos- 
dick.^ 

1  Fosdick,  J.  ■William.  The  Fire  Etcher  and  His  Art. 
Ladies'  Home  Journal,  September,  1896. 

Rainey,  Ada.  The  Decorations  of  a  Gothic  Studio.  The 
New  York  Home  of  J.  William  Fosdick.  Arts  and  Decora- 
tion, IV,  341;   July,  1914. 


210 


NEEDLEWORK. 

Lest  some  unkind  critic  insinuate  that  a  mere  man 
cannot  know  much  of  this  subject,  let  me  explain  that 
through  a  book  auction  (see  p.  171).  I  acquired  The 
Illuminated  Book  of  Keedlework^  and  therefore  mj 
knowledge  is  extensive. 

This  volume  claims  that  needlework  belongs  to 
woman,  that  man  has  nothing  to  do  with  it,  yet  gives 
as  the  first  needlework  the  fact  that  "They  sewed 
themselves  fig-leaves  together,  and  made  themselves 
aprons,"  which  to  any  unbiased  person  would  prove 
that  Adam  was  quite  as  much  of  a  needleworker  as 
Eve,  but  woman-like  the  author  changes  the  subject 
and  talks  at  some  length  about  "Banian  trees."  I  wish 
that  it  were  possible  to  quote  freely  from  this  delight- 
ful book,  as  it  is  so  full  of  historical  reference,  to 
Hannah,  Dorcas,  the  building  of  the  Tabernacle,  to  the 
needlework  of  the  Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Eomans, 
"Sheeschools"  (convents),  that  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  the  Bayeux  tapestry,  of  the  times  of  romance 
and  chivalry,  and  much  more,  but  it  is  quite  impossible 
and  only  brief  references  can  be  made.     A  Miss  Lin- 

1  Owen,  Mrs.  Henry,  and  the  Countess  of  Wilton  (Editor). 
The  Illuminated  Book  of  Needlework;  comprising  knitting, 
netting,  crochet  and  embroidery.  Preceded  by  a  History  of 
Needlework,  including  an  account  of  the  ancient  historical 
tapestries.  London,  1847,  Henry  G.  Bohn,  York  Street,  Cov- 
ent  Garden. 

211 


212  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

wood  is  spoken  of  as  achieving  "the  triumph  of  mod- 
ern art  in  needlework/'  by  her  copies  in  worsted  of 
paintings,  such  as  Carlo  Dolci's  "Salvator  Mundi"  for 
which  she  refused  three  thousand  guineas.  IvTearly 
one  hundred  pieces  of  various  sizes  were  made  by  Miss 
Linwood,  who  had  made  two  or  three  before  her  twen- 
tieth year  and  whose  last  piece,  The  Judgment  of  Cain, 
was  finished  in  her  seventy-fifth  year  after  ten  years 
work  on  it.  Her  work  was  evidently  a  form  of 
tapestry. 

The  following  quotation  is  of  interest:  "The  style 
of  modern  embroidery,  now  so  fashionable  from  the 
Berlin  patterns,  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century.  About  the  year  1804-5,  a  print- 
seller  in  Berlin,  named  Philipson,  published  the  first 
coloured  design,  on  checked  paper,  for  needlework. 
In  1810,  Madame  Wittich,  who,  being  a  very  accom- 
plished embroideress,  perceived  the  great  extension  of 
which  this  branch  of  trade  was  capable,  induced  her 
husband,  a  book  and  print-seller  of  Berlin,  to  engage 
in  it  with  spirit.  From  that  period  the  trade  has  gone 
on  rapidly  increasing,  though  within  the  last  six  years 
the  progression  has  been  infinitely  more  rapid  than  it 
had  previously  been,  owing  to  the  number  of  new  pub- 
lishers who  have  engaged  in  the  trade."  Chapters  are 
given  over  to  tapestry,  stitchery,  embroidery,  and 
needlework  on  books.  This  first  part  runs  to  over  400 
pages.  The  last,  or  practical  part,  only  occupies  a 
little  over  100.     The  word  illuminated  is  used  in  the 


iq-EEDLE  WOEK  213 

title  because  most  of  the  diagrams  used  to  illustrate 
this  part  are  handcolored. 

We  learn  that  "embroidery,  or  as  it  is  more  often 
called,  Berlin  Wool  AYork,  has  been  brought  to  such  a 
high  state  of  perfection  *  *  *  *  ^j^^t  we  do  not 
hope  here  to  be  able  to  throw  much  new  light  on  the 
subject."  Evidently  Mrs.  Owen  did  not  have  a  prophetic 
eye;  but  who  could  be  expected  nearly  seventy  years 
ago  to  have  foreseen  the  great  development  which  has 
taken  place  in  embroidery!  Probably  all  are  some- 
what familiar  with  the  term  Berlin  Wool  Work  from 
the  older  English  novels  of  SLich  writers  as  Dickens, 
and  it  seems  proper  to  speak  of  that  period  as  dating 
from  about  1830  to  1870. 

At  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  in 
1876,  there  was  an  exhibit  by  the  Il^eedlework  School 
of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  in  London.  This 
gave  a  great  stimulus  to  needlework  in  this  country, 
and  during  the  few  years  following  many  "Schools  of 
Art  ISTeedlework"  or  "Societies  of  Decorative  Art" 
were  formed.  These,  with  numerous  periodicals,  have 
done  much  to  encourage  the  art. 

Unfortunately  the  art  of  plain  sewing  was  neglected, 
and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  efforts  have  been 
made  to  teach  children  how  to  make  or  mend  things 
in  a  way  that  does  not  advertise  flauntingly  that  they 
are  patched  or  darned.  In  the  sampler  period,  patch- 
ing and  darning  was  an  art.  School  children  now  have 
classes  in  plain  sewing  and  various  sewing  cards  are 
published  as  guides  for  this  work.    These  may  be  very 


214  occuPATioisr  theeapy 

useful  to  a  nurse  wlio  is  in  charge  of  a  demented  or 
feeble-minded  patient  wlio  has  never  been  taugbt  to 
sew.  Dressing  dolls  for  a  fair  or  otber  purpose  makes 
a  good  object  for  such  work. 

Besides  doll  or  adult  clotbing  there  are  a  host  of 
things  which  can  .be  made,  and  suggestions  for  which 
are  constantly  appearing  in  periodicals. 

CROSS  STITCH  WORK. 

The  simplicity  of  this  work  and  the  quaintness  of 
the  designs  have  made  it  popular  recently.  By  it  most 
attractive  motifs  may  be  given  to  dresses  or  their  ac- 
cessories. It  may  be  used  solid  or  merely  to  outline  a 
design.  It  is  usually  done  on  a  coarsely  woven  fabric, 
which  gives  opportunity  for  easily  placing  the  stitches, 
or  when  done  with  worsted,  upon  canvas,  so  called,  a 
stiffened  openwork  fabric  with  double  threads,  every 
fifth  space  transversely  being  marked  with  a  dark 
thread.  Our  mothers  used  this  to  make  elaborately 
designed  coverings  for  furniture,  some  of  which  were 
very  horrible.  I^owadays  it  is  used  more  for  golf 
vests,  or  old-fashioned  pin-cushions. 

In  the  previously  mentioned  book  on  needlework, 
thirty-two  of  these  "embroidery"  stitches  are  given. 
They  cannot  all  technically  be  called  cross  stitches  be- 
cause some  do  not  cross  others,  but  all  are  to  be  used 
on  canvas  or  coarsely  woven  fabric.  Some  of  these 
make  such  effective  work  that  they  are  given  here. 
A  tapestry  needle  is  used. 


NEEDLEWOEK 


215 


1.  Tent  Stitch.  This  is  done  bj  passing  the  thread 
over  the  crossings  in  the  canvas  and  makes  a  solid, 
plain  background. 

2.  Cross   Stitch.  The  thread   is  brought  over  the 


Tent  stitch. 
Cross  Stitch. 

Feather    Stitch. 


Pavilion  Stitch. 


Willow  Stitch. 


Fig.  43. 


crossing  like  the  tent  stitch,  and  then  brought  up 
through  the  next  hole  so  as  to  cross  the  stitch  just 
made  at  right  angles.     It  is  this  stitch  which  has  been 


216  OCCUPATION    THEEAPY 

SO  popular  recently  to  ornament  towels  (guest  towels), 
bags,  etc. 

3.  Feather  Stitch.  This  is  quite  different  from 
what  is  known  as  feather  stitching  and  consists  of 
long  diagonal  stitches  lying  parallel,  rows  of  which 
alternate  with  similar  stitches  lying  at  an  alternate 
angle.  The  effect  of  these  two  rows  is  that  of  the 
barbs  of  a  feather.  This  is  sometimes  increased  by 
a  single  row  of  cross  stitches  between  these  rows, 
which  represent  the  shaft  of  the  feather.  The  yarn 
is  usually  put  over  one  double  thread  of  canvas  ver- 
tically and  two  horizontally. 

4.  The  pavilion  stitch  is  very  pretty  and  consists 
of  stitches  on  a  common  axis  covering  1,  3,  5,  3,  1 
rows  of  the  double  threads  of  the  canvas,  and  repeat. 
Below  a  row  of  these  there  are  placed  stitches  cover- 
ing Y,  5,  3,  5,  7  double  threads  of  the  canvas.  These 
rows  alternate. 

5.  What  is  called  a  willow  basket  stitch  is  made  by 
a  row  of  3  stitches  end  to  end,  each  going  over  4  double 
threads  of  canvas,  with  the  next  row  lying  at  right 
angles  to  the  first  row,  giving  the  effect  of  a  woven 
willow  basket. 

Many  other  combinations  can  be  made  which  pro- 
duce good  effects. 

In  doing  cross  stitch  work  it  is  well  to  have  the  pa- 
tient work  out  original  designs  with  colored  crayons 
on  cross  ruled  paper,  as  this  makes  a  diversion,  yet  is 
closely  connected  with  the  work.  In  the  beginning  it  is 
well  to  get  a  few  of  the  published  designs  in  order  to 


NEEDLEWORK  217 

learn  the  principle.  The  patient  should  be  taught  to 
work  them  in  rows,  counting  and  using  but  one  color 
at  a  time,  beginning  with  that  color  which  is  chiefly 
used.  There  is  more  pleasure  in  this  and  it  is  much 
better  for  the  patient  than  to  work  on  material  which 
has  already  been  stamped. 

EMBROIDERY. 

A  great  many  other  varieties  of  stitches  are  used  in 
embroidery,  and  these  can  be  learned  from  books  on 
the  subject  or  the  advertising  of  makers  of  embroidery 
materials.  Most  supply  stores  give  lessons  as  a  pre- 
mium for  so  much  material  bought.  The  subject  is 
too  large  and  has  too  many  branches  to  be  discussed 
here.  The  Encyclopaedia  Brittanica  contains  a  very 
interesting  article  on  the  subject. 

APPLIQUE  WORK. 

Applique  work  consists  in  sewing  on  one  fabric  a 
design  cut  from  another  fabric,  or  of  another  color. 
Some  old  patchwork  is  really  applique.  By  it  effects 
may  be  gained  much  more  quickly  than  by  embroid- 
ery, and  some  very  beautiful  pieces  may  result  from  a 
combination  of  the  two.     The  art  is  a  very  old  one. 

The  applied  pieces  are  fastened  to  the  fabric  by  a 
variety  of  stitches,  the  most  common,  perhaps,  being 
the  buttonhole  stitch.  If  a  cord  is  used  to  show  a  line 
or  vine,  it  is  couched  down.  The  best  effects  are  pro- 
duced  by   simple   conventional   designs,    and   the   re- 


218  OCCUPATION"    THEEAPY 

strained  use  of  color.  A  child's  nursery  blanket  of 
red  or  blue  flannel  figures  on  white  or  buff,  illustrat- 
ing some  nursery  rhyme,  would  appear  better  than 
if  an  attempt  is  made  to  have  the  applied  pieces  in 
their  natural  colors.  It  can  readily  be  seen  how  such 
a  work  as  this  can  be  made  a  developing  occupation, 
the  rhyme  being  selected,  the  crude  design  made  and 
elaborated,  the  patterns  cut  from  paper,  then  from 
the  fabric,  then  baisted  in  place,  and  finally  finished 
with  some  more  elaborate  stitch.  An  excellent  article 
on  this  work  appeared  in  Good  Hou.sekeeping.^ 

PATCH  WORK. 

Patch-work  is  but  little  used  in  these  days  when 
machine  weaving  has  made  fabrics  so  much  cheaper 
than  formerly,  and  when  there  is  less  necessity  for 
saving  material,  and  time  has  a  higher  value.  A  hun- 
dred' years  ago  it  was  necessary  to  save  scraps  and 
piece  them  together  to  make  bed-quilts.  The  house- 
wife exercised  her  fancy,  or  good  taste,  and  did  her 
piecing  in  regular  patterns,  over  two  hundred  of  these 
being  known.  It  was  left  to  a  more  degenerate  age 
to  originate  the  irregular  piecing  to  which  the  name 
crazy  has  been  given.  A  number  of  these  designs  are 
formed  by  applique  work,  they  usually  being  called 
sewed-on  quilts.  The  applied  pieces  are  sewed  on 
with  the  whip  stitch.  The  scraps  having  been  col- 
lected the  pieces  are  cut  to  the  forms  desired,  often 

1  Wilson,  Alice.     Applique  Work.     Good  Housekeeping. 


needlework:  219 

being  baisted  to  a  piece  of  paper  while  being  joined 
together,  in  order  to  preserve  the  form.  The  piecing 
is  done  with  a  plain  stitch  in  pieces  about  a  foot 
square  which  are  called  blocks.  A  number  of  these 
are  joined  together  to  form  a  quilt.  This  is  made 
with  a  lining  of  plain  fabric,  between  which  is  placed 
cotton  which  is  held  in  position  by  quilting — that  is, 
the  whole  quilt  is  stitched  through  in  lines  which  form 
designs  which  may  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
quilt.  Much  romance  clusters  around  quilting  and 
many  writers  have  used  it  as  a  theme.  To  the  one 
piecing  patch-work  the  various  scraps  of  material  used 
may  bring  up  pleasant  memories. 

BEAD  WORK. 

As  an  occupation  requiring  patience  and  persever- 
ance bead  work  has  few  rivals.  On  this  account  it 
is  especially  valuable  for  cases  of  dementia,  or  of 
restless  depression,  though  the  nurse  should  be  care- 
ful that  it  does  not  become  too  much  of  a  task,  and 
must  give  frequent  encouragement,  as  the  progress  of 
the  work  is  necessarily  slow. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  work.  The  first 
is  stringing  beads  of  various  kinds  to  form  watch 
chains,  neck  chains,  fan  chains,  etc.  Usually  this  is 
done  on  one  string,  but  when  two  strings  are  used 
smaller  beads  may  be  utilized  to  give  some  unusual 
effects,  as  when  both  strings  are  passed  through  one 
bead,  then  each  through  a  bead,  repeating  until  the 
length  desired  is .  attained. 


220  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

Belts  may  be  woven  on  a  special  bead  loom  (Apacbe 
loom)  which  may  be  bought  at  most  fancy  work 
stores.  Or  may  be  made  on  two  strings,  each  of 
which  passes  through  the  same  set  of  beads  from  op- 
posite ends,  and  run  transversely  to  and  fro  the  length 
of  the  belt.  Or  the  beads  may  be  sewn  singly,  or  in 
short  strings,  or  in  long  strings  which  are  couched 
down,  to  belts,  bags,  purses,  slippers,  etc.,  to  form  an 
isolated  ornament  or  to  appear  as  solid. 

Most  of  the  Indian  work  is  done  in  short  strings. 

The  single  sewing  of  beads  on  canvas  or  linen  prob- 
ably comes  from  the  ^Netherlands  and  Germany  and 
is  said  by  one  writer^  to  date  from  the  "Berlin  Wool 
Work"  period,  which,  as  we  already  know,  was  about 
1830-70.  "In  some  of  its  productions  it  is  very  bad, 
while  in  others  it  is  artistic  and  beautiful." 

Most  of  the  solid  bead  work  is  crocheted  with  silk, 
and  in  recent  years  there  has  been  a  revival  of  the 
old-fashioned  bead  purse  with  its  gay  roses,  or  more 
sober  formal  patterns.  The  last  are  less  difficult  to 
do,  as  bead  work  is  made  in  straight  lines  at  right 
angles,  and  a  simple  repeated  figure  can  be  expressed 
more  easily  than  an  elaborate  one  which  requires 
curved  lines.  "WTien  but  one  kind  of  bead  is  to  be 
used,  the  chocheting  is  not  difficult,  but  if  several  are 
to  be  used  as  in  making  a  design  of  several  colors,  the 
design  must  be  carefully  studied  and  the  beads  strung 
in  the  proper  order.     Cross  stitch  designing  may  be 

1  Wilson,  Mrs.  Bead  Work  for  Bags  and  Trimmings. 
Ladies  Home  Journal,  January,  1907. 


needlework:  221 

a  great  help  in  this,  but  the  worker  must  know  he- 
forehand  exactly  where  each  bead  or  stitch  is  to  be 
placed.  On  this  account  it  is  better  for  our  patient 
not  to  attempt  this  form  of  bead  work  until  she  has 
had  practice  in  sewing  on  single  beads  and  crocheting 
designs  of  a  simple  kind. 

The  Professor  of  Ceramics  of  ISTewcomb  College, 
Louisiana,  from  which  so  much  good  work  has  eman- 
ated, has  told^  how  to  make  beaded  lamp  shades  which 
must  be  very  beautiful.  A  brass  frame  covered  with 
wire  gauze  is  used  as  a  foundation,  on  which  the 
beads  are  embroidered  closely  together  with  fine  wire. 
This  is  said  to  be  more  tedious  than  that  of  weaving 
with  vertical  and  horizontal  wires,  as  belts  are  woven 
on  the  Apache  loom.  Two  wires  go  through  each 
bead  so  that  the  work  will  be  strong,  but  it  would 
seem  that  as  the  work  is  done  on  a  frame  this  is  un- 
necessary. It  would  be  an  interesting  problem  for 
nurse  and  patient  to  work  out.  Cross  stitch  designs 
would  naturally  lend  themselves  to  this  form  of  bead 
work. 

Bead  work  is  not  especially  cheap,  but  may  be  very 
durable  and  beautiful.  Linen  thread  should  always 
be  used  for  stringing. 

1  Sheerer,  Mary  G.  Beaded  Lamp  Shades.  The  Circle, 
May,  1907;   p.  329. 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Photograpliy  is  made  so  simple  for  us  nowadays  by 
"you  push  the  button  and  we  do  the  rest,"  that  some 
persons  have  the  idea  that  it  is  too  mechanical  to  be 
interesting,  but  even  though  the  patient  does  not  do 
his  own  developing  and  printing,  there  is  much  in 
choosing  artistic  subjects,  seeing  that  they  are  prop- 
erly lighted,  and  a  number  of  other  details. 

Several  years  ago  there  was  published  in  the 
Strand  Magazine  an  article  entitled  "The  Pageant 
of  the  Months,"  which  was  illustrated  by  twelve  views 
of  the  same  scene  photographed  during  the  different 
months  of  the  year.  This  would  seem  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent idea  and  a  favorite  view  taken  at  different 
seasons  or  at  different  times  of  the  day  would  be  an 
interesting  study,  and  a  series  of  such  pictures  would 
form  an  attractive  souvenir.  Especially  if  these 
views  were  taken  by  colored  photography  would  they 
be  beautiful.  What  homelover  but  would  be  pleased 
to  receive  on  Christmas  morning  four  views  of  his 
home  taken  at  the  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Still  life  of  various  sorts,  or  posed  pictures  illus- 
trating some  story  or  poem  might  have  a  commercial 
value,  besides  being  interesting  to  the  person  taking 
them. 

Instructions  for  taking  photographs  are  to  be  found 
in  the  pamphlets  published  by  camera  makers  or  may 

222 


PHOTOGRAPHY  223 

be  found  in  more  pretentious  books.  Experience  and 
practice  are  necessary  to  acquire  and  are  perhaps  tbe 
best  teachers. 

TINTING  PHOTOGRAPHS. 

Tinted  photographs  may  be  very  beautiful,  as,  for 
example,  those  done  by  the  Japanese.  It  is  not  espe- 
cially difficult  and  a  small  outfit  for  the  purpose  may 
be  purchased  at  art  stores. 

BLUE  PRINTS. 

If  the  patient  does  not  care  to  take  photographs, 
and  if  on  account  of  the  expense,  or  for  some  other 
reason  it  seems  inadvisable  as  an  occupation,  a  much 
simpler  one,  which  is  a  step  in  making  photographs, 
is  to  make  blue  prints.  The  printing  frame  is  not 
expensive  and  the  paper  can  be  bought  already  pre- 
pared or  can  be  made  very  cheaply,  as  follows:  Eor 
white  on  blue  ground  use  the  following:  Dissolve  If 
ounces  of  citrate  of  iron  and  ammonia  in  eight  ounces 
of  water,  and  mark  A.  And  in  another  bottle  dis- 
solve I5  ounces  of  ferricyanide  of  potassium  in  eight 
ounces  of  water,  and  mark  B.  Mix  equal  parts  of  A 
and  B,  and  apply  with  brush  or  by  floating  the  paper 
in  a  bath  of  the  mixture  for  three  minutes;  then 
hang  the  sheets  to  dry  in  a  darkened  room. 

For  black  lines  upon  a  white  ground  use  the  fol- 
lowing: Water,  9  ounces;  gelatine,  3  drams;  per- 
chloride  of  iron  solution,  IT.  S.  P.,  6  drams;  tartaric 
acid,  3  drams;  ferric  acid,  3  drams. 


224  OCCUPATION    THERAPY 

Filter  off  any  precipitate  that  may  be  found,  and 
coat  any  good,  stout  white  paper  with  the  full-strength 
solution.  Expose  in  sunlight  till  details  of  lines  are 
visible,  and  develop  with  gallic  acid,  6  drams ;  alcohol, 
6^  ounces;  water,  32  ounces.  Wash  well  in  several 
changes  of  water. 

Brown  ferro-prussiate  prints  may  be  made  on  blue 
print  paper  which  is  treated  in  the  usual  way.  It 
is  then  washed  in  one  part  of  ammonia  to  nine  of 
water  until  nearly  white,  when  it  is  rinsed  and  placed 
in  a  toning  bath  of  one  part  tannic  acid  to  fifty  of 
water  until  it  is  a  deep  sepia  color,  a  process  which 
may  take  several  hours.  After  this  the  print  is  washed 
and  dried  between  blotting  paper. 

Various  flat  objects  can  be  printed  in  silhouette,  and 
this  method  is  used  to  impress  the  various  shapes  of 
leaves  upon  children  engaged  in  nature  study.  Leaves, 
ferns,  grasses,  and  other  objects  can  also  be  used.  One 
writer  has  recorded  how  freizes  of  leaves  and  ferns 
were  made,  or  more  decorative  panels,  or  Dutch  tiles 
from  negatives  of  boats,  windmills,  etc.^ 

lAyers,  B.  A.  In  Blue  and  White.  Some  uses  of  blue 
prints.     Ladies'  Home  Journal,   September,  1897. 


MUSIC. 

Music  sliould  be  made  a  part  of  the  patient's  daily 
program  for  many  reasons.  It  is  best,  as  a  rule,  if  the 
patient  sings,  or  plays  some  instrument,  but  it  is  not 
necessary.  If  it  is  impossible  to  attend  concerts,  these 
should  be  brought  to  the  patient  by  means  of  one  of  the 
many  mechanical  devices.  A  player  piano  gives 
greater  opportunity  for  expression  than  do  the  disk 
playing  machines,  but  is  more  expensive.  Any  family 
can  afford  one  of  the  latter,  and  will  make  sacrifices  to 
secure  one  if  they  are  made  to  realize  that  its  use  will 
be  of  value  to  the  patient. 


225 


CONCLUSION. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  an  attempt  lias  been  made  to 
express  certain  general  principles  of  occupation  ther- 
apy, to  give  a  number  of  special  directions  which,  it 
is  hoped,  will  be  of  value  in  certain  cases,  and  to  tell 
briefly  how  these  things  should  be  done. 

How  successful  has  this  attempt  been?  That  is  a 
question  which  time  alone  can  answer. 

Criticism  may  be  made  of  certain  light  or  jesting 
remarks  which  appear  here  and  there.  They  are  pres- 
ent with  the  hope  that  the  work  will  be  pleasanter  read- 
ing and,  on  account  of  the  association,  that  certain 
facts  will  be  more  apt  to  be  fixed  in  memory.  Pre- 
cedent for  such  a  proceeding  is  not  lacking. 

Much  more  might  have  been  written  of  ways  to  do 
things,  but  it  is  felt  that  such  would  merely  be  a  repeti- 
tion of  what  has  already  appeared  in  other  places. 
That  so  much  has  been  given  is  because  it  was  thought 
that  the  nurse  should  have  the  ground  work  for  various 
occupations  in  a  convenient  form,  and  only  by  giving 
them  could  comment  properly  be  made  upon  these  oc- 
cupations. The  main  object  has  been  to  point  out  the 
benefits  to  be  gained  by  occupation,  and  to  indicate 
how  certain  ones  might  be  applied  as  a  therapeutic 
measure  in  certain  cases.  That  these  last  are  not  more 
specific  is  because  each  case  has  its  own  problems  which 

226 


CONCLUSION  227 

cannot  be  solved  until  they  are  met  with,   and  it  is 
wiser  to  give  only  general  rules. 

There  is  a  strong  temptation  to  reiterate  much  that 
has  been  said  in  order  to  emphasize  it,  but  perhaps  it 
is  well  only  to  again  urge  the  nurse  to  perfect  herself 
in  one  craft  in  order  that  it  may  serve  as  her  hobby 
and  safety  valve,  and  to  repeat  these  cardinal  rules  in 
applying  occupation  therapy: 

1.  The  occupation  should  be  new — that  is,  some- 
thing to  which  the  patient  is  not  accustomed,  in  order 
to  arrest  and  hold  his  attention. 

2.  One  occupation  should  not  be  followed  to  the 
point  of  fatigue.  A  change  of  occupation  may  be  the 
best  form  of  rest,  as  throwing  a  ball  or  bean  bag  after 
sitting  over  leather  punching,  or  taking  a  walk  after 
being  at  work  at  a  loom. 

3.  The  work  should  be  useful  and  the  patient  should 
be  shown  what  this  use  is.    Avoid  aimless  work. 

4.  It  should  preferably  lead  to  an  enlargement  of 
the  patients  mental  horizon,  and  a  study  and  interest 
in  associated  things.  It  is  for  the  reason  that  the 
nurse  may  appreciate  the  greater  interest  in  an  occupa- 
tion if  such  are  known  that  the  historical  and  other 
facts  have  been  introduced  in  this  book. 

5.  The  nurse  should  participate  in  the  occupation 
and  show  an  interest  in  it. 

6.  The  patient  should  be  encouraged  by  praise,  and 
criticism  should  be  given  sugar  coated. 

7.  It  is  better  that  the  patient  do  bad  work  than 
none  at  all. 


228  OCCUPATION' AL  THERAPY. 

If  the  nurse  masters  the  above  she  will  undouhtedly 
be  successful  in  applying  occupation  as  a  therapeautic 
measure  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  little  book  will  help 
in  their  mastery. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  OCCUPATION  THERAPY. 

The  following   bibliography   on   occupation   therapy    is   the 

most   complete  known.     As  will  be  noted,   the   additions   in 

recent  years  have  been  more  numerous,  indicating  a  greater 

interest  in  the  subject. 

Allinson,  H.  E.  The  moral  and  industrial  management  of 
the  insane.     Alienist  and  Neurologist,   vii,   286-297,   1886. 

Anderson,  Paul  V,  The  value  of  employment  in  cases  of  de- 
mentia praecox.     Charlotte  Medical  Journal,  Ix,  19,  1909. 

Antonoff,  E.  V.  Physical  labor  as  a  means  of  treating  mental 
diseases.     St.  Petersburg,  1889,  8° 

Barton,  George  Edward.  A  view  of  invalid  occupation. 
Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review,  lii,  327,  June,  1914. 

Barton,  George  Edward,  Occupational  therapy.  Trained 
Nurse  and  Hospital  Review,  liv,  March,  1915. 

Barton,  George  Edward.  Occupational  nursing.  Trained 
Nurse  and  Hospital  Review,  liv,  335,  June,  1915. 

Blumer,  G.  Alder.  The  medical  and  material  aspects  of  in- 
dustrial employment  of  the  insane.  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Medico-Psychological  Association,  iv,  230,  1897. 

Booth,  Carolyn.  Entertainment  for  convalescents  and  in- 
valids.    Chicago   Medical   Recorder,   June    15,    1911. 

Bower,  D.  Employment  in  the  treatment  of  mental  disease  in 
the  upper  classes.     Journal  of  Mental  Science,  xviii,  182. 

Bower,  D.  Treatment  by  occupation  in  an  English  private 
asylum.  Transactions  of  Ninth  International  Medical 
Congress,  Washington,   1887,  v,   2.79-281. 

Bratten,  F.  D.  Some  problems  involved  in  providing  for  the 
personal  welfare  of  insane  women.  Minnesota  Quarterly, 
ix,  48,  November,  1909. 

Browne,  W.  A.  P.  The  moral  treatment  of  the  insane.  Jour- 
nal of  Mental  Science,  x,  1864. 

Browne,  W.  A.  P.  On  rewarding  and  employing  patients. 
Journal  of  Mental  Science,  xxix,  1883. 

229 


230  OCCUPATIONAL,   THERAPY. 

Burnet,  Anne.  Re-education  of  the  insane.  Bulletin  of  Iowa 
State  Institutions,  xi,  45-49,  1909. 

Cameron,  Reba  G.  Industries  and  Amusements.  Tlie  Trained 
Nurse  and  Hospital  Review,  Au^st,  1914. 

Carlisle,  Chester  L.  A  graded  and  systematized  plan  of  out- 
door exercise  for  the  demented  insane.  American  Jour- 
nal of  Insanity,  lix,  637. 

Carroll,  Robert  S.  The  therapy  of  work.  Journal  of  the 
American  Medical  Association,  liv,  2032,  June  13,  1910. 

Cohn,  Eugen.  The  systematic  occupation  and  entertainment 
of  the  insane  in  public  institutions.  Journal  of  the  Amer- 
ican   Medical  Association,  1,  1249,  April  18,  1908. 

Cohoon,  E.  H.  The  therapeutics  of  industrial  occupation  in 
the  treatment  of  the  insane.  Report  of  the  Superinten- 
dent of  State  Hospitals  for  the  Insane  to  the  Board  of 
State  Charities  and  Corrections  of  Rhode  Island  for  1911, 
p.  29. 

Crumbacher,  W.  P.  Diversional  occupation  for  the  insane. 
Bulletin  of  Iowa  State  Institutions,  July,  1913. 

Dunton,  W.  R.,  Jr.  A  nurses'  occupation  course.  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Association,  xix, 
269,  1912. 

Dunton,  W.  R.,  Jr.  Occupation  as  a  therapeutic  measure. 
Medical  Record,  Ixxxiii,  388,  1913. 

Dunton,  W.  R.,  Jr.,  Chairman.  Report  of  the  committee  on  di- 
versional occupation.  Proceedings  of  the  American  Med- 
ico-Psychological Association,  xxi,  138,  1914.  Also  in 
American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Ixxi,  214,  July,  1914. 

Editorial.  The  moral  treatment  of  insanity.  American  Jour- 
nal of  Insanity,  iv,  1,  1847. 

Editorial.  Occupational  treatment  of  insanity.  Medical  Rec- 
ord, Ixxx,  433,  1911. 

Editorial.  Occupation  for  convalescents.  Medical  Record, 
Ixxxiii,  760,  1913. 

Everett,  Edward  A.  The  treatment  of  nervous  and  mental 
diseases  by  occupational  methods.  The  Hahnemannian 
Monthly,  August,  1912. 

Fields,  Grace  E.  The  effect  of  occupation  upon  the  individual. 
American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Ixviii,  103,  1911. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    OCCUPATION    THERAPY  231 

Francis,  L.  Outdoor  work  as  a  remedial  agent  in  insanity. 
Journal  of  Mental  Science,  xxxiii,  364-372,  1887-8. 

Geissler,  G.  Bedeutung  und  wert  der  Arbeitshandlung  Nerv- 
enkranken.  Muenchener  Medizinische  Wochenschrift,  liii. 
Abstracted  in  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, xlv,  431,  August  5,  1905. 

Goss,  Arthur  V.  Occupation  as  a  remedial  agent  in  the  treat- 
ment of  mental  diseases.  American  Journal  of  Insanity, 
Ixx,  477,  1913. 

Gross,  Ellen  Kate,  Occupation  and  recreation '  classes  for 
the  insane.  Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  1,  72,  Jan- 
uary, 1912. 

Hall,  Herbert  J.  Work-cure.  A  report  of  five  years'  experi- 
ence at  an  institution  devoted  to  the  therapeutic  applica- 
tion of  manual  work.  Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  liv,  12,  January  1,  1910. 

Hall,  Herbert  J.  Manual  work  in  the  treatment  of  functional 
nervous  diseases.  Journal  of  the  American  Medical  As- 
sociation, Iv,  295,  July  23,  1910. 

HaH,  Herbert  J.  Hospital  and  Asylum  workshops:  Some 
possibilities  of  handicapped  labor.  Journal  of  the  Amer- 
ican Medical  Association,  Ixi,  1976-1977,  November  29, 
1913. 

Hamlin,  F.  M.  Schools  for  the  insane.  American  Journal  of 
Insanity,  Iviii,  141-150,  1901. 

Haviland,  C.  Floyd.  Discussion  on  occupations  for  the  in- 
sane and  their  therapeutic  value;  What  is  now  done  and 
what  if  anything  further  should  be  done.  New  York 
State  Hospitals   Bulletin,  May,   1912. 

Haviland,  C.  Floyd.  Occupation  for  the  insane.  Proceed- 
ings of  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Association, 
xix,  249,  1912.  Also  American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Ixix, 
483. 

Herring,  Arthur  P.  Diversional  occupation  of  the  insane. 
Proceedings  of  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Asso- 
ciation, xix,  245-249,  1912. 

Herring,  Arthur  P.,  Chairman.  Report  of  the  committee  on 
the  diversional  occupation  of  the  insane.     Proceedings  of 


232  OCCUPATIOlSrAL,  tiibkapy. 

the  American  Medico-Psycliological  Association,  xx,  40, 
1913.  Also  in  American  Journal  of  insanity,  Ixx,  246, 
July,  1913. 

Husted,  Mary  Irving.  Industrial  work  and  the  value  of  re- 
education.    Clifton  Medical  Bulletin,  i,  63,  July,  1913. 

Hutchings,  R.  H.  Demonstration  of  work  done  by  patients  in 
kindergarten.  New  York  State  Hospitals  Bulletin,  May, 
1912. 

Jacoby,  G.  W.  A  colony  sanitarium  for  the  nervous  and  neur- 
asthenic. A  much  needed  philanthropy.  New  York  Med- 
ical Journal,  Ixxxvii,  719,  April  18,  1908. 

Jarvis,  Edward.  Employments  for  mechanical  and  other  pa- 
tients in  the  British  lunatic  asylums.  American  Journal 
of  Insanity,  xix,  129,  1862. 

Jones,  Edith  Kathleen.  State  control  of  hospital  libraries. 
American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Ixviii,  709,  1912. 

Jones,  Edith  Kathleen.  Library  work  among  the  insane. 
Bulletin  of  the  American  Library  Association,  vi. 

Jones,  Edith  Kathleen.  The  value  of  the  library  in  the  hos- 
pital for  mental  disease.  Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly, 
iv,  8-13,  1914. 

Jones,  Edith  Kathleen.  "Culture  courses"  in  training  schools 
for  nurses.     The  Modern  Hospital,  iii,  1914. 

LaMoure,  Charles  T.  The  value  of  systemic  teaching  in  cases 
of  dementia  praecox.    Alienist  and  Neurologist,  xxxi,  1910. 

LaMoure,  Charles  T.  The  re-education  of  the  insane.  Mary- 
land Psychiatric  Quarterly,  i,  37,  October,  1911. 

LaMoure,  Charles  T.  Re-education  of  dementia  praecox  cases 
and  industrial  training  of  the  chronic  cases.  Proceed- 
ings of  the  American  Medico-Psychological  Association, 
xix,  263,  1912. 

LaMoure,  Charles  T.  Toy  making  as  an  occupation  for  the 
insane.     Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  iii,  16,  1913. 

Lindsay,  "W.  Lauder.  Reprint  from  the  report  of  James  Mur- 
ray's Royal  Asylum,  Perth,  Scotland,  for  1860-61.  Mary- 
land Psychiatric  Quarterly,  iii,  10,  1913. 

Marie,  Dr.  Work  in  the  treatment  of  the  insane.  Revue 
de  Psychiatrie  et  de  Psychologie  Experimentale,  x,  1, 
1906. 


BIBLIOGKAPHT    OF    OCCUPATIOJ^^    TIIEKAPY  233 

Molier,  Thomas  J.  Occupation  in  tlie  treatment  of  the  insane. 
Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  xlviii,  1664, 
1907.    Abstract  in  American  Journal  of  Insanity,  Ixiv,  212. 

Neff,  Mary  Lawson.  Occupation  as  a  therapeutic  agent  in  in- 
sanity.    Medical  Record,  Ixxviii,       ,  December  3,  1910. 

Neff,  Mary  Lawson.  The  use  of  waste  materials.  Maryland 
Psychiatric  Quarterly,  iii,  9-14,  1913. 

Neff,  Mary  Lawson.  The  minimizing  of  insanity.  Journal  of 
the  American  Medical  Association,  Ixi,  559,  August  23,  1913. 

Neff,  Mary  Lawson.  Hilda's  pillow:  Healing  the  insane 
through  work.    The  Craftsman,  xxvii,  99,  September,  1914. 

Neff,  Mary  Lawson.  A  model  program  for  a  ward  in  a  state 
hospital.     Bulletin  of  Iowa  State  Institutions,  July,  1914. 

Nickerson,  Mary  A.  A  plan  for  the  re-education  of  dementia 
praecox  cases.  Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  iii,  7,  1913. 

Paidoleau,  A.  De  la  medicine  morale  dans  le  traitement  des 
maladies  nerveuses.     Paris,  1864. 

Parigot,  A.  General  mental  therapeutics.  American  Journal 
of  Insanity,  xx,  300,  1863. 

Purdum,  H.  D.  Report  of  the  re-educational  work  at  Bay 
View  Asylum.  Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  1,  G8, 
January,  1912. 

Purdum,  H.  D.  The  psychotherapeutic  value  of  occupation. 
Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  i,  35,  1911. 

Ray,  Isaac.  Labor  in  principal  hospitals  for  insane  in  Great 
Britain,  France  and  Germany.  American  Journal  of  In- 
sanity, ii,  359,  1846. 

Ray,  Isaac.  The  labor  question  and  hospitals  for  incurables. 
Reprinted  from  Report  to  Corporation  of  Butler  Hospital 
for  18G5.  American  Journal  of  Insanity,  xxii,  439,  13, 
1866. 

Ricksher,  Charles.  Occupation  in  treatment  of  insane.  Il- 
linois Medical  Journal,  April,  1913. 

Sanborn,  Bigelow  T.  Employment  of  the  insane.  Transac- 
tions of  Maine  Medical  Association  for  1887,  211-220. 

Schwab,  Sidney  I.  Therapeutic  value  of  work  in  hysteria 
and  neurasthenia.  Interstate  Medical  Journal,  ix,  May, 
1902, 

Slagle,  Eleanor  Clark,    History  of  the  development  of  occupa- 


234  OCCUPATIONAL   THERAPY. 

tion  for  the  insane.  Maryland  Psychiatric  Quarterly,  iv, 
14,  July,  1914. 

Smith,  S.  Compensation  of  insane  labor,  suggestions  in  re- 
gard to  the  better  organization  of  a  system  of  labor  for 
the  chronic  insane.  Proceedings  of  Conference  of  Char- 
ities of  1884,  222-228. 

Stedman,  Henry  R.  The  art  of  companionship  in  mental 
nursing.     Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  1914. 

Thayer,  Addison  S.  Work  cure.  Journal  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  li,  1485-1487,  October  31,  1908. 

Tomlinson,  H.  A.  The  influence  of  occupation  in  the  preven- 
tion of  mental  reduction.  Minnesota  Quarterly,  Novem- 
ber 1907,  39. 

Tracy,  Susan  E.  Studies  in  invalid  occupation.  Boston,  1910, 
Whitcomb  and  Barrows. 

Van  Nuys,  J.  D.  The  value  of  occupation  in  the  treatment 
of  the  insane.  Sixth  Semi-annual  Bulletin  of  Kansas 
State   Charitable    Institutions,    February,   1911. 

Veraguth,  Otto.  Ueber  Arbeitstherapie.  Therapie  der  gegen- 
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American  Medical  Association,  xlv,  662,  1905. 

Wade,  J.  Percy.  Remarks  on  occupation  of  the  insane.  Mary- 
land Hospital  News,  November,  1908. 

Wade,  J.  Percy.  Occupation  of  the  insane.  Maryland  Psychi- 
atric Quarterly,  i,  10,  1911. 

Wardner,  H.  Occupation  in  treatment  of  insanity.  Trans- 
actions of  Ninth  International  Medical  Congress  at  Wash- 
ington, 1887,  v,  273-278.  Also  in  Alienist  and  Neurologist, 
ix,  227-236,  1888. 

Winterode,  Robert  P.  Remedial,  economic,  and  ethical  value 
of  employment  of  patients  as  utilized  in  state  hospitals. 
Maryland  Medical  Journal,  liii,  331,  October,  1910. 

Wiest,  Anna.  Beschaftigungsbuch  fuer  Kranke  und  Rekon- 
valescenten. 

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insane.    Kansas  City  Medical  Index-Lancet,  October,  1910. 


REFERENCE  IS  ALSO   MADE   TO   THE   SUBJECT   IN 
THE  FOLLOWING  BOOKS: 

Barrus,  Clara.     Nursing  the   Insane.     New  York,   1908,  Mac- 

millan  Co.     Chapter  on  Amusements  and  Occupations. 
Baker,  Ray  S.     New  ideals  in  Healing.     New  York,  1909,  F. 

A.  Stokes  Co, 
Cannon,  Ida  M.     Social  Work  in  Hospitals.     New  York,  1913. 

Servey  Associates.     Chapter  on  Medical  Social  Problems. 
Beers,  Clifford  W.     The  Mind  that  found  Itself.     New  York, 

1908,  Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Cabot,  Richard  C.     What  Men  Live  By.     Work,  Play,  Love, 

Worship.     Boston,  1914,  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Gulick,  Luther  M.     Mind  and  Work.     Chapters  on  Handicaps, 

and  The  Spirit  of  the  Game. 
Partridge,  C.  E.     The  Nervous  Life.     Chapters  on  Recreation, 

Work,  The  Individual. 
Musgrove,    C.    D.      Nervous    Breakdowns    and    How    to    avoid 

Them.     New  York,  1914,  Funk  &  Wagnalls  Co.     Chapter 

on  Hobbies,  etc. 
Witmer,  Lightmer.     The  Special  Class  for  Backward  Children. 

Chapters  V  and  VI. 


INDEX 


American  literature,  46,  48 
Applique  work,  217 
Arrow,  142 
Art,  46,  47 
Asylum,  Friends',  14 
Attention,    24,    120,    153, 
209 

Bag,  Macrame,  97 

raffia,   97 
Bars,  94 

Bases,  basketry,  138 
Basket,  Japanese  flower, 

Madeira  fruit,  148 
Basketry,   131 

bases,  138 

borders,  143 

handles,  146 

stitches,  151 

weaves,  141 
Beadwork,  219 
Beads,    starch,    188 
Bed  table,  121 
Bibliography,  229 
Bight,  82 
Binding,  pamphlet,  159 

stabbed,  160 
Black  line  paper,  223 
Blankets,  Indian,  105 
Block  printing,  184 
Blue  prints,  223 
Bookbinding,  156 
Book  collecting,  170 

scrap,  160 
Borders,  basketry,  143 
Braiding,  87 

Caning  chairs,  154 
Cap,  taboggan,  102 
Card  games,  55 
trick,  56 


198, 


148 


Casts,  plaster,  187 

Catches,  38 

Cat's  cradle,  62 

Cement  work,  189 

Chair  caning,  154 

Chicago  School  of  Civics  and 

Philanthropy,  15 
Christian  Science,  46 
Cleveland,  Grover,  22 
Clothes,  doll,  214 
Clove  hitch,  84 
Coil  work,   150 
Collecting,  166 

books,  170 

stamps,  167 
College,  teachers',  18 
Colonial  mats,  105 
Coping  saw,  120 
Corn  husks,  136 
Crepe  paper  work,  116 
Crocheting,  100 

hairpin,  100 
Cross  stitch  work,  214 
Crown  knot,  85 
Cup,  112 

Cut  out  dolls,  114 
Cutting  paper,  114 

Dancing,  rhythmic,  53 
Defective,  mental,  199 
Dementia,  25,  28,  214,  219 
prsecox,   25,  33,  35,  45,  108, 
201 
Depression,    27,    28,   119,    198, 

204,   209,   219 
Developing    occupation,     100, 

156,  199,  218 
Director  of  occupation,  34 
Doll  clothes,  214 
hammock,   101 
string,  91 


237 


238 


INDEX 


Dolls,  cut  out,  114 
Dominoes,  58 
Drawing,  192 
Duster,  shoe,  92 

Embroidery,  217 

stitches,  215,  216 
English  literature,  46,  47 
Envelope,  112 
Etched  metal,  204 
Excitement,  25,  28 
Exercises,  physical,  51 

Fear,  45 

Figure-of-eight  knot,  83 
Figures,  string,  60 
Fish's  mouth,  112 
Fob,  watch,  96 
Folding  paper.  111 
Friends'  Asylum,  14 
Fuller,  Chief  Justice,  23 

Games,  card,  55 
Gardening,  174 
Grass,  sweet,  136 
Guard,  watch,  96 

HAiRPiis^  crocheting,  100 
Hammered  metal,  202 
Hammock,  doll's,  101 
Handles,  basketry,  146 
Henry  Phipps  Psychiatric 

Clinic,  19 
Historical,  11 
Hobbies,  value  of,  21 
Honeysuckle  vines,  136 
Hooked  rug,  108 

Illuminating,  194 
Imbecility,  108,  214 
Indian  blankets,  105 

Japanese  flower  basket,  148 

Jewelry,  204 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  19 

Knitting,  100 
rake,  91 
spool,  89 


Knot,   crown,   85 

figure-of-eight,  83 

overhand,  82 

reef,  83 

sailor's,  83 

Solomon's,  86 

square,  83 

true,  83 

wall,  85 

weaver's,  84 
Knotting,  81 

Lace  weaving,  109 
Lavendar,  177 
Leather   work,    205 

McLean  Hospital,  12 

Macrame,  92 

bag,  97 
Madeira  fruit  basket,  148 
Maiden  hair  fern  stem,  136 
Making  rugs,  107 

sweet  jar,  176 
Mass.  General  Hospital,  16 
Mats,  colonial,  105 
Mechanism    of    recovery    by 

occupation,  27 
Mental    defective,  199 
Metal,  etched,  204 

hammered,  202 

pierced  or  sawed,  201 

punched,  200 

work,  200 
Music,  225 

Nature  study,  178 
Needlework,  211 
Netting,  100 
Neurasthenia,  45 
Nip,  82 
Nurse   in   hospital,   34 

Occupation  card,   36 
developing,    100,    156,    199, 

218 
director  of,  34 
mechanism  of  recovery  by, 

27 
psychology  of,  24 


INDEX 


239 


Occupation,   purpose   of,   25 

rules  of,  227 
Overhand  knot,   82 

Painting,  192 
Pamphlet  binding,  159 
Paper,  black  line,  223 

board,  120 

crepe,  work,  116 

cutting,  114 

folding.  111 

sepia,  224 

wall,  117 

work,  110 
Paste,  117 
Patch  work,  218 
Petals,  rose,  175  . 
Photographs,  tinting,  223 
Photography,    222 
Physical  exercises,  51 
Picture  puzzles,  128 
Pierced  or  sawed  metal,  201 
Plaster  casts,  187 
Plastic  work,  185 
Printing,  199 

block,  184 
Prints,  blue,  223 
Psychiatric  Clinic,  Henry 

Phipps,  19 
Psychology  of  occupation,  24 
Punched  metal,  200 
Purposes  of  occupation,  25 
Puzzles,   38 

picture,  128 
Pyrography,   210 

Quilts,  sewed-on,  218 

Raffia,  134 

bag,  97 
Rake  knitting,  91 
Reading,  42 
Records,  37 
Reed,  133 
Reef  knot,  83 
Rewards,  35 
Rhythmic  dancing,  53 
Rose  petals,  175 
Rug,  hooked,  108 


Rug  making,   107 

Sailoe's  knot,  83 

Saw,  coping,  120 

scroll,  120 

Schedule,  26,  35 

Science,  Christian,  46 

Scrap   book,   160 

Scroll  saw,  120 

Seizing,  86 

Senility,  108,  190 

Sepia  paper,  224 

Serving,  86 

Sewing,  213 

Sewed-on  quilts,  218 

Sheppard    and    Enoch    Pratt 

Hospital,  16 
Shoe  duster,  92 
Shut-in  personality,  45 
Solomon's  bar,  95 

knot,  86 
Splints,  wood,  135 
Spool  knitting,  89 
Square  knot,  83 
Stabbed  binding,  160 
Stamp  collecting,  167 
Star,  112 
Starch  beads,   188 
Stenciling,  179 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  21 
Stitches,  basketry,  151 

embroidery,  215,   216 
String  doll,  91 

figures,  60 

work,  59 
Study,  nature,  178 
Sweet  grass,  136 

jar,  making,  176 

Table,  bed,  121 

Tatting,  100 

Taunton  State  Hospital,  18 

Teachers'  college,  18 

Tidies,  105 

Tinting  photographs,  223 

Toboggan   cap,  102 

Tracy,  Miss,  15,  16 

Trick,  card,  56 

True  knot,  83 


240 


INDEX 


Turk's  head,  8G 

Utica  State  Hospital,  119 

Venetia:x  iron  work,  203 
Vines,  honeysuckle,  136 

Wall  knot,  85 

paper,  117 
Watch  fob,  96 

guard,  96 
Weaver's  knot,  84 
Weaves,  basketry,  141 
Weaving,  101 

lace,  109 
Willow,  134 


Wood  splints,  135 

work,   119 
Work,  applique,  217 

bead,  219 

cement,  189 

coil,  150 
crepe  paper,  116 

cross  stitch,  214 

leather,  205 

paper,  110 

patch,  218 

plastic,  185 

string,  59 

Venetian  iron,  203 

wood,  119 


Books  for  Nurses 


PUBLISHED   BY 


W.    B.   SAUNDERS   COMPANY 

West  Washington  Square  Philadelphia 

London:    9,  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden 


Sanders'   Nursing 


A  NEW  WORK 


Miss  Sanders'  new  book  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
complete  and  most  practical  work  on  nursing  ever 
published.  Everything  about  every  subject  with 
which  the  nurse  should  be  familiar  is  detailed  in 
a  clean  cut,  definite  way.  There  is  no  other 
nursing  book  so  full  of  good,  practical  informa- 
tion— information  you  need. 

Modern  Methods  in  Nursing.  By  Georgiana  J.  Sanders, 
formerly  Superintendent  of  Nurses  at  Massachusetts  Gen- 
eral Hospital.       i2mo  of  88i  pages,  with  227  illustrations. 

Cloth,  $2.50  net. 

Aikens'  Home  Nurse's  Handbook 

PRACTICAL 

The  point  about  this  work  is  this:  It  tells  you, 
and  shows  you  just  how  to  do  those  little — but 
none  the  less  important — things  entirely  omitted 
from  other  nursing  books,  or  at  best  only  inci- 
dentally treated.  The  chapters  on  "Home  Treat- 
ments" and  "Every-Day  Care  of  the  Baby," 
stand  out  as  particularly  practical.  Then  the 
"  Points  to  be  Remembered" — terse,  crisp  re- 
minders— is  a  feature  of  great  value. 

Home  Nurse's  Handbook.  By  Charlotte  A.  Aikens, 
formerly  Director  of  the  Sibley  Memorial  Hospital,  Wash- 
ington, D.C.  i2mo  of  276  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  nei 


Stoney's  Nursing  new (4th) edition 

Of  this  work  the  A'merica7i  Journal  of  Nursing  says:  "It  is  the 
fullest  and  most  complete  and  may  well  be  recommended  as 
being  of  great  general  usefulness.  The  best  chapter  is  the  one 
on  observation  of  symptoms  which  is  very  thorough,"  There 
are  directions  how  to  improvise   everything. 

Practical  Points  in  Nursing.  By  Emily  M.  A.  Stoney,  formerly  Super- 
intendent of  the  Training  School  for  Nurses  in  the  Carney  Hospital, 
South  Boston.  Mass.    i2mo,  495  pages,  illustrated.    Cloth.   $1.75  net. 

Stoney's  Materia  Medica       new  od)  editionI 

Stoney's  Materia  Medica  was  written  by  a  head  nurse  who] 
knows  just  what  the  nurse  needs.  American  Medicine  says; 
it  contains  "all  the  information  in  regards  to  drugs  that  a 
nurse  should  possess." 

Materia  Medica  for  Nurses.  By  Emily  M.  A.  Stoney,  formerly  Super- 
intendent of  the  Training  School  for  Nurses  in  the  Carney  Hospital. 
South    Boston,   Mass»   i2mo  volume  of  300  pages.    Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Stoney's  Surgical  Technic      new  od)  edition 

The  first  part  of  the   book   is  dovoted    to   Bacteriology   and 
Antiseptics;    the   second   part   to  Surgical  Technic,  Signs  of| 
Death,  Bandaging,  Care  of  Infants,  etc. 

Bacteriology  and  Surgical  Technic  for  Nurses.  By  EMILY  M.  A. 
Stoney.  Revised  by  Frederic  R.  Griffith,  M.  D.,  New  York, 
lamo   volume    of   311    pages,    fully   illustrated.         Cloth,    $1.50  net. 


ILLUSTRATED 


Goodnow's  First-Year  Nursing 

Miss  Goodnow's  work  deals  entirely  with  the  practical  side  of 
first-year  nursing  work.  It  is  the  application  of  text-book 
knowledge.  It  tells  the  nurse  how  to  do  those  things  she  is  called 
upon  to  do  in  her  first  year  in  the  training  school— the  actual 
ward  work. 

First-Year  Nursing.  By  Minnie  Goodnow,  R.  N.,  formerly  Super- 
intendent of  the  Women's  Hospital,  Denv«r.  mjdo  of  328  pages, 
illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


a 


Aikens'  Hospital  Management 

This  is  just  the  work  for  hospital  superintendents,  training- 
school  principals,  physicians,  and  all  who  are  actively  inter- 
ested in  hospital  administration.  The  Medical  Record  S2iys>\ 
"Tells  in  concise  form  exactly  what  a  hospital  should  do 
and  how  it  should  be  run,  from  the  scrubwoman  up  to  its 
financing." 

Hospital  Management.  Arranged  and  edited  by  Charlotte  A. 
Aikens.  formerly  Director  of  Sibley  Memorial  Hospital,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.      i2mo  of  488  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $3.00  net 


JUST  REAOY 
NEW  (3d}  EDITION 


Aikens'  Primary  Studies 

Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review  says:  **  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  any  pupil  who  has  mastered  even  the  major  portion  of 
this  work  would  be  one  of  the  best  prepared  first  5-ear  pupils 
who  ever  stood  for  examination." 

Primary  Studies  for  Nurses,  By  Charlotte  A,  Aikens,  formerly 
Director  of  Sibley  Memorial  Hospital,  Washington,  D.  C.  i2mo  of 
471  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.75  net 

Aikens'  Training-School  Methods  and 
the  Head  Nurse 

This  work  not  only  tells  how  to  teach,  but  also  what  should 
be  taught  the  nurse  and  how  much.  The  Medical  Record  says: 
•'  This  book  is  original,  breezy  and  healthy." 

Hospital  Training-School  Methods  and  the  Head  Nurse.  By  CHAR- 
LOTTE A.  Aikens,  formerly  Director  of  Sibley  Memorial  Hospital, 
Washington,  D.  C.    i2mc  of  267  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net 

Aikens'    Clinical    Studies       new  (2d)  edition 

This  work  for  second  and  third  year  students  is  written  on  the 
same  lines  as  the  author's  successful  work  for  primary  stu- 
dents. Dietetic  and  Hygienic  Gazette  says  there  "  is  a  large 
amount  of  practical  information  in  this  book." 

Clinical  Studies  for  Nurses.  By  Charlotte  A.  Aikens,  formerly 
Director  of  Sibley  Memorial  Hospital,  Washington,  D.  C.  lamo  of 
569  pages,  illustrated  Cloth,  $2.00  net 


Bolduan  and  Grund's  Bacteriology 

The  authors  have  laid  particular  emphasis  on  the  immediate 
application  of  bacteriology  to  the  art  of  nursing.  It  is  an 
applied  bacteriology  in  the  truest  sense.  A  study  of  all  the 
ordinary  modes  of  transmission  of  infection  are  included. 

Applied  Bacteriology  for  Nurses.  By  Charles  F.  Bolduan,  M.D., 
Assistant  to  the  General  Medical  Officer,  and  Marie  Grund,  M.D., 
Bacteriologist,  Research  Laboratory,  Derartment  of  Health,  City  of 
New  York.    i2mo  of  166  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.25  net. 


Fiske's  The  Body 


A  NEW  IDEA 


Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review  says  "it  is  concise,  well- 
written  and  well  illustrated,  and  should  meet  with  favor  in 
schools  for  nurses  and  with  the  graduate  nurse." 

Structure  and  Functions  of  the  Body.     By  Annette  Fiske,  A.  M., 

Graduate  of  the  Waltham    Training   School    for    Nurses,    Massa- 
chusetts.   i2mo  of  221  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.25  net 


Beck's  Reference  Handbook 


NEW  (3d)   EDITION 


This  book  contains  all  the  information  that  a  nurse  requires 
to  carry  out  any  directions  given  by  the  physician.  The 
Montreal  Medical  Journal  says  it  is  '*  cleverly  systematized  and 
shows  close  observation  of  the  sickroom  and  hospital  regime." 

A  Reference  Handbook  for  Nurses.  By  AMANDA  K.  Beck,  Grad- 
uate of  the  Illinois  Training  School  for  Nurses,  Chicago,  III 
32mo    volume    of   244   pages.     Bound    in  flexible  leather,    $1.25  net. 

Roberts'  Bacteriology  &  Pathology 

This  new  work  is  practical  in  the  strictest  sense.  "Written 
specially  for  nurses,  it  confines  itself  to  information  that  the 
nurse  should  know.  All  unessential  matter  is  excluded.  The 
style  is  concise  and  to  the  point,  j^et  clear  and  plain.  The  text 
is  illustrated  throughout. 

Bacteriology  and  Pathology  for  Nurses.    By  Jay  G.  Roberts,  Ph.  G., 

M.  D.,  Oskaloosa,  Iowa.      i2mo  of  206  pages,  illustrated.       $1.25  net. 


DeLee's  Obstetrics  for  Nurses 


FOURTH 
EDITION 


Dr.  DeLee's  book  really  considers  two  subjects — obstetrics 
for  nurses  and  actual  obstetric  nursing.  Trained  Nurse  and 
Hospital  Review  says  the  "book  abounds  with  practical 
suggestions,  and  they  are  given  with  such  clearness  that 
they  cannot  fail  to  leave  their  impress." 

Obstetrics  for  Nurses.  By  JOSEPH  B.  DeLee,  M.  D.,  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  at  the  Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  Chicago, 
lamo  volume  of  508  pages,  fully  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.50  net. 

Davis'  Obstetric  &  Gynecologic  Nursing 

NEW  (4th)  EDITION 

TJie  Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review  says:  "  This  is  one 
of  the  most  practical  and  useful  books  ever  presented  to  the 
nursing   profession."     The  text  is  illustrated. 

Obstetric  and  Gynecologic  Nursing.  By  Edward  P.  Davis,  M.  D., 
Professor  of  Obstetrics  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadel- 
phia,   lamo  volume  of  480  pages,  illustrated.         Buckram,  $1.75  net 

Macfarlane's  Gynecology  for  Nurses 

NEW  (2d)   EDITION 

Dr.  A.  M.  Seabrook,  Woman's  Hospital  of  Philadelphia,  says: 
"It  is  a  most  admirable  little  book,  covering  in  a  concise  but 
attractive  way  the  subject  from  the  nurse's  standpoint." 

A  Reference  Handbook  of  Gynecology  for  Nurses.  By  Catharine 
Macfarlane,  M.  D.,  Gynecologist  to  the  Woman's  Hospital  of  Phila- 
delphia. 32mo  of  156  pages,  with  70  illustrations.  Flexible  leather, 
$1.25  net. 

Asher*s  Chemistry  and  Toxicology 

Dr.  Asher's  one  aim  was  to  emphasize  throughout  his  book 
•ihe  application  of  chemical  and  toxicologic  knowledge  in  the 
study  and  practice  of  nursing.     He  has  admirably  succeeded. 

i2mo  of  igo  pages.  By  Philip  Asher,  Ph.  G.,  M.  D.,  Dean  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Chemistry,  New  Orleans  College  of  Pharmacy.  Cloth, 
$1.25  net. 


Bohm  &  Painter's  Massage 

The  methods  described  are  those  employed  in  Hoffa's  Clinic 
— methods  that  give  results.  Everj^  step  is  illustrated,  showing 
you  the  exact  direction  of  the  strokings.  The  pictures  are 
large. 

Octavo  of  Qi  pag-es,  -with  q7  illustrations.  By  Max  Bohm,  M.  D., 
Berlin,  Germany.  Edited  by  Charles  F.  Painter,  M.  D.,  Professor 
of  Orthopedic  Surgerj',  Tufts  College  Medical  School,  Boston. 

Cloth,  $1.75  net. 

Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Nursing 

Medical  Record  says:  "Every  side  of  the  question  has  been 
fully-  taken  into  consideration." 

Nursing    in   Diseases  of    the    Eye,   Ear.    Nose   and    Throat.      By  the 

Committee  on  Nurses  of  the  Alanhattan  Eye,  Ear  and  Throat  Hospital. 
i2mo  of  260  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Friedenwald  and  Ruhrah's  Dietetics  for 

iN  UrSGS  NEW  (3d)  EDITION 

This  work  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  nurse, 
both  in  training  school  and  after  graduation.  Auierican  Jour- 
nal of  NuT'sing  says  it  "is  exactly  the  book  for  which  nurses 
and  others  have  long  and  vainly  sought." 

Dietetics  for  Nurses.  By  JULIUS  Friedenwald,  M.  D.,  Professor 
of  Diseases  of  the  Stomach,  and  JOHN  Ruhrah,  M.  D.,  Professor  of 
Diseases  of  Children,  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Baltimore, 
izmo  volume  of  431  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net 

Friedenwald  &  Ruhrah  on  Diet         EomJ" 

Diet  in  Health  and  Disease.  By  Jultos  Frieden- 
wald, M.D.,  and  John  Ruhrah,  M.D.  Octavo  vol- 
ume of  857  pages.  Clotli,  ^4.00  net. 

Galbraith's   Personal  Hygiene  and  Physical 

Training  for  Women  illustrated 

Personal  Hygiene  and  Physical  Training  for  Women.  By  ANNA  M. 
Galbraith,  M.  D.,  Fellow  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine.  i2mo 
of  371  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.00  net 

Galbraith's  Four  Epochs  of  Woman's  Life 

THE  NEW  (2d)  EDITION 

The  Four  Epochs  of  Woman's  Life.  By  Anna  M.  Galbraith,  M.D. 
With  an  Introductory  Note  by  John  H.  Musser,  M.  D.,  University 
of  Pennsylvania.    i2mo  of  247  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net 


McCombs'  Diseases  of  Children  for  Nurses 

NEW  (2d)   EDITION 

Dr.  McCombs'  experience  in  lecturing  to  nurses  lias  enabled 
him  to  emphasizeyas'/  tJiose paints  thai  nurses  most  need  to  know. 
National  Hospital  Record  says:  "We  have  needed  a  good 
book  on  children's  diseases  and  this  volume  admirably  fills 
the  want."  The  nurse's  side  has  been  written  by  head 
nurses,  very  valuable  being  the  work  of  Miss  Jennie  Manly. 

Diseases  of  Children  for  Nurses.  By  Robert  S.  McComb3,  M.  D., 
Instructor  of  Nurses  at  the  Children's  Hospital  of  Philadelphia.  lamo 
of  470  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  S2.00  net 


NEW  (2d)  EDITION 


Wilson's  Obstetric  Nursing 

In  Dr.  Wilson's  work  the  entire  subject  is  covered  from  the 
beginning  of  pregnancy,  its  course,  signs,  labor,  its  actual 
accomplishment,  the  puerperium  and  care  of  the  infant. 
American  Journal  of  Obstetrics  says:  "  Kvery  page  empasizes 
the  nurse's  relation  to  the  case." 

A  Reference  Handbook  of  Obstatric  Nursing.  By  V/.  Reynolds 
Wilson,  M.D.,  Visiting  Physician  to  the  Philadelphia  Lying-in  Char* 
'1y.    3i!mo  of  355  pages,  illustrated.  Flexible  leather,  $1.25  net 


JUST  READY 
NEW  (9ch)  EDITION 


American  Pocket  Dictionary 

The  Trained  Nurse  a7id  Hospital  Review  says  :  * '  We  have 
had  many  occasions  to  refer  to  this  dictionary,  and  in  every 
instance  we  have  found  the  desired  information." 

American  Pocket  Medical  Dictionary.  Edited  by  W.  A.  Newman 
Borland,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Loyola  University,  Chicago.  Flexible 
leather,  gold  edges,  $1.00  net;  with  patent  thumb  index,   $1.25  net 


THIRD 
EDITION 


Lewis'  Anatomy  and  Physiology 

Nurses  Joarnal of  Pacific  Coast  says  "it  is  not  in  any  sense 
rudimentary,  but  comprehensive  in  its  treatment  of  the  sub- 
jects."    The  low  price  makes  this  book  particularly  attractive. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  for  Nurses.  By  LeRoy  Lewis,  M.D.,  Lec- 
turer on  Anatomy  and  Physiology  for  Nurses,  Lewis  Hospital,  Bay 
City,  Mich.    lamo  of  ii26  pages,  150  illustrations.      Cloth,  $1.75  net 


Boyd's  State  Registration  for  Nurses 

State  Registration  for  Nurses.  By  Louie  CrofT  Boyd,  R.  N.,  Grad* 
2d  EDITION  "^*®  Colorado  Training  School  for  Nurses.  Cloth,  $1.25  net. 

Paul's  Materia  Medica  new  (2d)  edition 

A  Text-Book  of  Materia  Medica  for  Nurses,  By  George  P.  Paul,  M.D., 
Samaritan  Hospital,  Troy,  N.  Y.     lamo  of  282  pages.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Paul's  Fever  Nursing  new  (2d)  edition 

Nursing  in  the  Acute  Infectious  Fevers.  By  GEORGE  P.  Paul,  M.D. 
i2mo  of  246  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.00  net. 

Hoxie  &  Laptad's  Medicine  for  Nurses 

NEW  (2d)   edition,  REWRITTEN 

Medicine  for  Nurses  and  Housemothers.  Bv  George  Howard 
Hoxie,  M.D.,  University  of  Kansas;  and  Pearl  L.  Laptad.  i2mo 
of  351  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


SECOND 
EDITION 

Mechano-therapy  (Massage  and  Medical  Gymnastics).       By  AxEL   V, 
Grafstrom,  B.Sc.    M.D.,      i2mo,  200  page^.  Cloth,  $x  25  net. 


Grafstrom's  Mechano-therapy 

Mechano-therapy  (Massage  a 
Grafstrom,  B.Sc.   M.D., 

N^ancrede's  Anatomy  new  (7th)  edition 

Essentials  of  Anatomy.  Charles  B.  G.  deNancrede,  M.D.,  Univeis- 
ity  of  Michigan.    i2mo,  400  pages,  i8o  illustrations.      Cloth,  $1.00  nei 

Morrow's  Immediate  Care  of  Injured 

Immediate  Care  of  the  Injured.  By  Albert  S.  Morrow,  M.D.,  New 
Yorli  City  Home  for  Aged  and  Infirm.  Octavo  of  354  pages,  with 
242  illustrations.    Cloth,  $2.50  net.  New  (2d)    Editioa 

Register's  Fever  Nursing 

A  Text  Book  on  Practical  Fever  Nu-sing.  By  Edward  C.  Register, 
M.D.,  North  Carolina  Medical  Coll>>ge  Octavo  of  350  pages,  illus- 
trated. Cloth,  $2.50  net. 

Pyle's  Personal  Hygiene 


JUST  OUT 
NEW  (6th)  EDITION 


A  Manual  of  Personal   Hygiene.    Edited  by  Walter  L.  Pyle,  M.D. 
Wills   Eye  Hospital,  Philadelphia.    i2mo,  543  pages,  illus.    $1.50  net. 


Morris'  Materia  Medica 


NEW    (7th)  EDITION 

Essentials  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics,  and  Prescription  Writing. 
By  Henry  Morris,  M.D.  Revised  by  W.  A.  Bastedo,  M.D.,  Colum- 
bia University,  N.  Y.    i2mo  of  300  pages.  Illustrated.   Cloth,  $1.00  net 


Griffith's  Care  of  the  Baby 


JUST  OUT 
NEW  (6th)  EDITION 


The  Care  of  the  Baby.    By  J.  P.  Crozer  Griffith,  M.D..  Univers- 
ity of  Pennsylvania,    lamo  of  458  pages,  illustrated.    Cloth,  $1.50  net 


